John Chrysostom

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This article is about the Christian saint. For other uses, see Chrysostomos (disambiguation).

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PatronageConstantinople, education, epilepsy, lecturers, public speakers,[3] preachers[4]
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John Chrysostom (

ascetic sensibilities. The epithet Χρυσόστομος (Chrysostomos, anglicized as Chrysostom) means "golden-mouthed" in Greek and denotes his celebrated eloquence.[1][7]
Chrysostom was among the most prolific authors in the early Christian Church.

He is honoured as a

Hathor).[11]

Biography

Early life

John was born in Antioch, Roman Syria (modern-day Antakya, Hatay, Turkey) in 347 AD.[12][13][14] Different scholars describe his mother Anthusa as a pagan or as a Christian.[15] His father was a high-ranking military officer. John's father died soon after his birth and he was raised by his mother. He was baptised in 368 or 373 and tonsured as a reader (one of the minor orders of the Church). It is sometimes said that he was bitten by a snake when he was ten years old, leading to him getting an infection from the bite.[b]

As a result of his mother's influential connections in the city, John began his education under the pagan preacher Libanius.[16] From Libanius, John acquired the skills for a career in rhetoric, as well as a love of the Greek language and literature.[17] Eventually, he became a lawyer.

As he grew older, however, John became more deeply committed to Christianity and went on to study

Diodore of Tarsus, founder of the re-constituted School of Antioch. According to the Christian historian Sozomen, Libanius was supposed to have said on his deathbed that John would have been his successor "if the Christians had not taken him from us".[18]

John lived in extreme asceticism and became a hermit in about 375; he spent the next two years continually standing, scarcely sleeping, and committing the Bible to memory. As a consequence of these practices, his stomach and kidneys were permanently damaged and poor health forced him to return to Antioch.[19]

Diaconate and service in Antioch

Further information:
Meletian schism

John was first appointed as a

bishopric of Antioch. But after the death of Paulinus (388) he was ordained a presbyter (priest) by Evagrius of Antioch, the successor of Paulinus by the Eustathian faction in the city.[20] He was destined later to bring about reconciliation between Flavian I of Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome, thus bringing those three sees into communion for the first time in nearly seventy years.[21]

In Antioch, over the course of twelve years (386–397), John gained popularity because of the eloquence of his public speaking at the Golden Church, Antioch's

homilies on various books of the Bible. He emphasised charitable giving and was concerned with the spiritual and temporal needs of the poor. He spoke against abuse of wealth and personal property:

Do you wish to honour the body of Christ? Do not ignore him when he is naked. Do not pay him homage in the temple clad in silk, only then to neglect him outside where he is cold and ill-clad. He who said: "This is my body" is the same who said: "You saw me hungry and you gave me no food", and "Whatever you did to the least of my brothers you did also to me"... What good is it if the Eucharistic table is overloaded with golden chalices when your brother is dying of hunger? Start by satisfying his hunger and then with what is left you may adorn the altar as well.[22]

His straightforward understanding of the Scriptures – in contrast to the Alexandrian tendency towards allegorical interpretation – meant that the themes of his talks were practical, explaining the Bible's application to everyday life. Such straightforward preaching helped Chrysostom to garner popular support.[1]

One incident that happened during his service in Antioch illustrates the influence of his homilies. When Chrysostom arrived in Antioch, Flavian, the bishop of the city, had to intervene with emperor Theodosius I on behalf of citizens who had gone on a rampage mutilating statues of the emperor and his family. During the weeks of Lent in 387, John preached more than twenty homilies in which he entreated the people to see the error of their ways. These made a lasting impression on the general population of the city: many pagans converted to Christianity as a result of the homilies. The city was ultimately spared from severe consequences.[6]

Archbishop of Constantinople

See also:
Origenist Crises
John Chrysostom confronting Aelia Eudoxia, in a 19th-century anti-clerical painting by Jean-Paul Laurens

In the autumn of 397, John was appointed

archbishop of Constantinople, after having been nominated without his knowledge by the eunuch Eutropius. He had to leave Antioch in secret due to fears that the departure of such a popular figure would cause civil unrest.[23]

During his time as archbishop he adamantly refused to host lavish social gatherings, which made him popular with the common people, but unpopular with wealthy citizens and the clergy. His reforms of the clergy were also unpopular. He told visiting regional preachers to return to the churches they were meant to be serving – without any pay-out.[24] Also he founded a number of hospitals in Constantinople.[25][26]

His time in Constantinople was more tumultuous than his time in Antioch. Theophilus, the patriarch of Alexandria, wanted to bring Constantinople under his sway and opposed John's appointment to Constantinople. Theophilus had disciplined four Egyptian monks (known as "the Tall Brothers") over their support of Origen's teachings. They fled to John and were welcomed by him. Theophilus therefore accused John of being too partial to the teaching of Origen. He made another enemy in Aelia Eudoxia, wife of emperor Arcadius, who assumed that John's denunciations of extravagance in feminine dress were aimed at her.[6] Eudoxia, Theophilus and other of his enemies held a synod in 403 (the Synod of the Oak) to charge John, in which his connection to Origen was used against him. It resulted in his deposition and banishment. He was called back by Arcadius almost immediately, as the people became "tumultuous" over his departure, even threatening to burn the imperial palace.[27] There was an earthquake the night of his arrest, which Eudoxia took for a sign of God's anger, prompting her to ask Arcadius for John's reinstatement.[28]

Peace was short-lived. A silver statue of Eudoxia was erected in the

Theodosian Hagia Sophia
.

Around 405, John began to lend moral and financial support to Christian monks who were enforcing the emperors' anti-pagan laws, by destroying temples and shrines in Phoenicia and nearby regions.[31]

Exile and death

The exile of John Chrysostom. Scene from the 11th century Menologion of Basil II.

The causes of John's exile are not clear, though Jennifer Barry suggests that they have to do with his connections to

bishop of Aquileia.[33][34][35]
In 1872, church historian William Stephens wrote:

The Patriarch of the Eastern Rome appeals to the great bishops of the West, as the champions of an ecclesiastical discipline which he confesses himself unable to enforce, or to see any prospect of establishing. No jealousy is entertained of the Patriarch of the Old Rome by the patriarch of the New Rome. The interference of Innocent is courted, a certain primacy is accorded him, but at the same time he is not addressed as a supreme arbitrator; assistance and sympathy are solicited from him as from an elder brother, and two other prelates of Italy are joint recipients with him of the appeal.[36]

Pope Innocent I protested John's banishment from Constantinople to the town of Cucusus (Göksun) in Cappadocia, but to no avail. Innocent sent a delegation to intercede on behalf of John in 405. It was led by Gaudentius of Brescia; Gaudentius and his companions, two bishops, encountered many difficulties and never reached their goal of entering Constantinople.[37]

John wrote letters which still held great influence in Constantinople. As a result of this, he was further exiled from Cucusus (where he stayed from 404 to 407) to

Pitiunt (Pityus) (in modern Georgia). He never reached this destination alive, as he died at Comana Pontica (modern-day Gümenek, Tokat, Turkey) on 14 September 407 during the journey.[38] He died in the Presbyterium or community of the clergy belonging to the church of Saint Basiliscus of Comana.[39] His last words are said to have been "Δόξα τῷ Θεῷ πάντων ἕνεκεν" ('Glory be to God for all things').[40]

Veneration and canonization

Byzantine 11th-century soapstone relief of John Chrysostom, Louvre

John came to be venerated as a saint soon after his death. Almost immediately after, an anonymous supporter of John (known as pseudo-Martyrius) wrote a funeral oration to reclaim John as a symbol of Christian orthodoxy.[32] But three decades later, some of his adherents in Constantinople remained in schism.[41] Proclus, archbishop of Constantinople (434–446), hoping to bring about the reconciliation of the Johannites, preached a homily praising his predecessor in the Church of Hagia Sophia. He said, "O John, your life was filled with sorrow, but your death was glorious. Your grave is blessed and reward is great, by the grace and mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ O graced one, having conquered the bounds of time and place! Love has conquered space, unforgetting memory has annihilated the limits, and place does not hinder the miracles of the saint."[42]

These homilies helped to mobilize public opinion, and the patriarch received permission from the emperor to return Chrysostom's

Three Hierarchs.[43]

In the Eastern Orthodox Church there are several

feast days
dedicated to him:

In 1908 Pope Pius X named him the patron saint of preachers.[4]

Writings

Some 700 sermons and 246 letters by John Chrysostom survive, plus biblical commentaries, moral discourses, and theological treatises.[citation needed]

Homilies

Paschal Homily

Archangel Michael stands on his left (11th-century illuminated manuscript
).

The best known of his many homilies is an extremely brief one, the Paschal Homily (Hieratikon), which is read at the first service of Pascha (Easter), the midnight Orthros (Matins), in the Eastern Orthodox Church.[46]

General

Chrysostom's extant homiletical works are vast, including many hundreds of exegetical homilies on both the New Testament (especially the works of Paul the Apostle) and the Old Testament (particularly on Genesis). Among his extant exegetical works are sixty-seven homilies on Genesis, fifty-nine on the Psalms, ninety on the Gospel of Matthew, eighty-eight on the Gospel of John, and fifty-five on the Acts of the Apostles.[1]

The homilies were written down by stenographers and subsequently circulated, revealing a style that tended to be direct and greatly personal, but formed by the rhetorical conventions of his time and place.

Antiochian school (i.e., more literal in interpreting biblical events), but he also uses a good deal of the allegorical interpretation more associated with the Alexandrian school.[1]

John's social and religious world was formed by the continuing and pervasive presence of paganism in the life of the city. One of his regular topics was the paganism in the culture of Constantinople, and in his homilies he thunders against popular pagan amusements: the

sophists or rhetors.[48]

One of the recurring features of John's homilies is his emphasis on care for the needy.[49] Echoing themes found in the Gospel of Matthew, he calls upon the rich to lay aside materialism in favor of helping the poor, often employing all of his rhetorical skills to shame wealthy people to abandon conspicuous consumption:

Do you pay such honor to your excrements as to receive them into a silver chamber-pot when another man made in the image of God is perishing in the cold?[50]

Along these lines, he wrote often about the need for almsgiving and its importance alongside fasting and prayer, e.g. "Prayer without almsgiving is unfruitful."[51]

conch mosaic of John Chrysostom from the south-east apse of the nave of the Hosios Loukas
monastery

Cyril of Alexandria attributed the destruction of the Ephesian Temple of Artemis to John Chrysostom, referring to him as "the destroyer of the demons and overthrower of the temple of Diana". A later Archbishop of Constantinople, Proclus repeated the allegation, saying "In Ephesus, he despoiled the art of Midas". Both claims are considered spurious.[52]

Homilies against Jews and Judaizing Christians

Main article: Adversus Judaeos

During his first two years as a presbyter in Antioch (386–387), John denounced

Jewish festivals and other Jewish observances.[53][54] It is disputed whether the main targets were specifically Judaizers or Jews in general. His homilies were expressed in the conventional manner, using the uncompromising rhetorical form known as the psogos (Greek: blame, censure).[53]

One of the purposes of these homilies was to prevent Christians from participating in Jewish customs, and thus prevent the perceived erosion of Chrysostom's flock. In his homilies, John criticized those "Judaizing Christians", who were participating in Jewish festivals and taking part in other Jewish observances, such as the

circumcision and made pilgrimage to Jewish holy places.[53] There had been a revival of Jewish faith and tolerance in Antioch in 361, so Chrysostom's followers and the greater Christian community were in contact with Jews frequently, and Chrysostom was concerned that this interaction would draw Christians away from their faith identity.[55]

John claimed that synagogues were full of Christians, especially Christian women, on the shabbats and Jewish festivals, because they loved the solemnity of the Jewish liturgy and enjoyed listening to the shofar on Rosh Hashanah, and applauded famous preachers in accordance with the contemporary custom.[56] Due to Chrysostom's stature in the Christian church, both locally and within the greater church hierarchy, his sermons were fairly successful in spreading anti-Jewish sentiment.

In Greek the homilies are called Kata Ioudaiōn (Κατὰ Ἰουδαίων), which is translated as Adversus Judaeos in Latin and 'Against the Jews' in English.

Benedictine editor of the homilies, Bernard de Montfaucon, gives the following footnote to the title: "A discourse against the Jews; but it was delivered against those who were Judaizing and keeping the fasts with them [the Jews]."[57]

According to Patristics scholars, opposition to any particular view during the late 4th century was conventionally expressed in a manner, using the rhetorical form known as the psogos, whose literary conventions were to vilify opponents in an uncompromising manner; thus, it has been argued that to call Chrysostom an "anti-Semite" is to employ anachronistic terminology in a way incongruous with historical context and record.[58] This does not preclude assertions that Chrysostom's theology was a form of anti-Jewish supersessionism.[59]

Anglican priest James Parkes called Chrysostom's writing on Jews "the most horrible and violent denunciations of Judaism to be found in the writings of a Christian theologian".[60] According to historian William I. Brustein, his sermons against Jews gave further momentum to the idea that Jews are collectively responsible for the death of Jesus.[61] Steven T. Katz cites Chrysostom's homilies as "the decisive turn in the history of Christian anti-Judaism, a turn whose ultimate disfiguring consequence was enacted in the political antisemitism of Adolf Hitler."[62]

Cathedral of St Sophia, Novgorod

Homily against homosexuality

According to Robert H. Allen, "Chrysostom's learning and eloquence spans and sums up a long age of ever-growing moral outrage, fear and loathing of homosexuality."

Romans 1:26,[64] where he argues as follows:

All these affections then were vile, but chiefly the mad lust after males; for the soul is more the sufferer in sins, and more dishonored, than the body in diseases. ... [The men] have done an insult to nature itself. And a yet more disgraceful thing than these is it, when even the women seek after these intercourses, who ought to have more sense of shame than men.[65]

He says the active male victimizes the passive male in a way that leaves him more enduringly dishonored than even a victim of murder since the victim of this act must "live under" the shame of the "insolency".[65] The victim of a murder, by contrast, carries no dishonor. He asserts that punishment will be found in Hell for such transgressors and that women can be guilty of the sin as much as men. Chrysostom argues that the male passive partner has effectively renounced his manhood and become a woman – such an individual deserves to be "driven out and stoned". He attributes the cause to "luxury". "Do not, he means (Paul), because you have heard that they burned, suppose that the evil was only in desire. For the greater part of it came of their luxuriousness, which also kindled into flame their lust".[65]

According to scholar Michael Carden, Chrysostom was particularly influential in shaping early Christian thought that same-sex desire was an evil, claiming that he altered a traditional interpretation of Sodom as a place of inhospitality to one where the sexual transgressions of the Sodomites became paramount.[66] However, other scholars – such as Kruger[67] and Nortjé-Meyer[68] – dispute this, arguing that the author of the Epistle of Jude already interpreted the sin of Sodom as homosexuality in the New Testament.

Treatises

Apart from his homilies, a number of John's other treatises have had a lasting influence. One such work is John's early treatise Against Those Who Oppose the Monastic Life, written while he was a deacon (sometime before 386), which was directed to parents, pagan as well as Christian, whose sons were contemplating a monastic vocation.[69] Chrysostom wrote that, already in his day, it was customary for Antiochenes to send their sons to be educated by monks.[70]

Another important treatise written by John is titled

Olympias, of which seventeen are extant.[72]

Liturgy

Beyond his preaching, the other lasting legacy of John is his influence on Christian liturgy. Two of his writings are particularly notable. He harmonized the liturgical life of the church by revising the prayers and rubrics of the

Divine Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom as the normal Eucharistic liturgy, although his exact connection with it remains a matter of debate among experts.[73]

Legacy and influence

Saint Patrick's Cathedral
, New York City

During a time when city clergy were subject to criticism for their high lifestyle, John was determined to reform his clergy in Constantinople. These efforts were met with resistance and limited success. He was an excellent preacher

Greek Fathers.[1]

Catechism of the Catholic Church

The Catechism of the Catholic Church cites him in eighteen sections, particularly his reflections on the purpose of prayer and the meaning of the Lord's Prayer:[74]

Consider how [Jesus Christ] teaches us to be humble, by making us see that our virtue does not depend on our work alone but on grace from on high. He commands each of the faithful who prays to do so universally, for the whole world. For he did not say "thy will be done in me or in us", but "on earth", the whole earth, so that error may be banished from it, truth take root in it, all vice be destroyed on it, virtue flourish on it, and earth no longer differ from heaven.[75]

Protestant clergy

Protestant clerics, such as Richard Salter Storrs, refer to him as "one of the most eloquent preachers who ever since apostolic times have brought to men the divine tidings of truth and love",[76] and the 19th-century John Henry Newman described John as a "bright, cheerful, gentle soul; a sensitive heart".[77]

Music and literature

John's liturgical legacy has inspired several musical compositions, including

Alexander Grechaninovs Liturgy of Johannes Chrysostomos No. 1, Op. 13 (1897), Liturgy of Johannes Chrysostomos No. 2, Op. 29 (1902), Liturgia Domestica (Liturgy Johannes Chrysostomos No. 3), Op. 79 (1917) and Liturgy of Johannes Chrysostomos No. 4, Op. 177 (1943) are noteworthy.[citation needed
]

James Joyce's novel Ulysses includes a character named Mulligan who brings 'Chrysostomos' into another character (Stephen Dedalus)'s mind because Mulligan's gold-stopped teeth and his gift of the gab earn him the title which St. John Chrysostom's preaching earned him, 'golden-mouthed':[80] "[Mulligan] peered sideways up and gave a long low whistle of call, then paused awhile in rapt attention, his even white teeth glistening here and there with gold points. Chrysostomos."[81]

Legend of the penance of Saint John Chrysostom

The Penance of St. John Chrysostom. Engraving by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1509. The saint can be seen in the background on all fours, while the princess and their baby dominate the foreground.

A late medieval legend relates that, when John Chrysostom was a

Hans Sebald Beham and Lucas Cranach the Elder, among others. Martin Luther mocked this same legend in his Die Lügend von S. Johanne Chrysostomo (1537) to analyse the pitfalls of the Christian Legendary (hagiography).[83][84] The legend was recorded in Croatia in the 16th century.[85][non-primary source needed
]

Relics

The return of the relics of Saint John Chrysostom to the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople

John Chrysostom died in the city of Comana in 407 on his way to his place of exile. There his relics remained until 438 when, thirty years after his death, they were transferred to Constantinople during the reign of the empress Eudoxia's son, the emperor Theodosius II (408–450), under the guidance of John's disciple, Proclus, who by that time had become archbishop of Constantinople (434–447).[86]

Most of John's relics were looted from Constantinople by

Church of St. George, Istanbul.[90]

The skull, however, having been kept at the monastery at

Epiphany Cathedral, until being moved to the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour after its restoration.[citation needed
]

Today, the monastery at Vatopedi posits a rival claim to possessing the skull of John Chrysostom, and there a skull is venerated by pilgrims to the monastery as that of Saint John. Two sites in Italy also claim to have the saint's skull: the

Dal Pozzo chapel in Pisa. The right hand of Saint John is preserved at Philotheou Monastery on Mount Athos,[91] and numerous smaller relics are scattered throughout the world.[92]

Collected works

Widely used editions of Chrysostom's works are available in Greek, Latin, English, and French. The Greek edition is edited by

Sir Henry Savile (eight volumes, Eton, 1613); the most complete Greek and Latin edition is edited by Bernard de Montfaucon (thirteen volumes, Paris, 1718–38, republished in 1834–40, and reprinted in Migne's Patrologia Graeca, volumes 47–64). There is an English translation in the first series of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (London and New York, 1889–90). A selection of his writings has been published more recently in the original with facing French translation in Sources Chrétiennes.[93]

See also

  • Saint John Chrysostom, patron saint archive

References

Notes

  1. JND Kelly, after a review of the evidence and literature, favours 349 as the date that best fits all available evidence, in agreement with Robert Carter. See Kelly, Golden Mouth: (He was named Chrysostom because that means Golder mouth) The Story of John Chrysostom: Ascetic, Preacher, Bishop, (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic 1998: originally published Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), p. 4 fn. 12; esp. Appendix B passim. For a discussion of alternatives presented in the literature, see Robert Carter, "The Chronology of St. John Chrysostom's Early Life", in Traditio 18:357–64 (1962); Jean Dumortier, "La valeur historique du dialogue de Palladius et la chronologie de saint Jean Chrysostome", in Mélanges de science religieuse, 8:51–56 (1951). Carter dates his birth to the year 349. See also Wilken 2004
    , p. 5
  2. ^ Wilken 2004, p. 7 prefers 368 for the date of Chrysostom's baptism, the Encyclopaedia Judaica prefers the later date of 373.
  3. Treves
    , who was unjustly accused of infidelity and sentenced to death. She was led into the forest to be put to death, but her executioners relented and there abandoned her.

Citations

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  5. JND Kelly
    , after a review of the evidence and literature, favours 349 as the date that best fits all available evidence, in agreement with Robert Carter. See Kelly, Golden Mouth: The Story of John Chrysostom: Ascetic, Preacher, Bishop, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1998: originally published Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), p. 4 fn. 12; esp. 296–298 passim. For a concurring analysis which is followed in most recent reconstructions of the early life of Chrysostomos, see Robert Carter, "The Chronology of St. John Chrysostom's Early Life", in Traditio 18:357–364 (1962). For a discussion of alternatives, often in older literature, see especially G. Ettlinger, Traditio 16 (1960), pp. 373–380, Jean Dumortier, "La valeur historique du dialogue de Palladius et la chronologie de saint Jean Chrysostome", Mélanges de science religieuse, 8:51–56 (1951)
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