Second voyage of HMS Beagle
Leader | Robert FitzRoy |
---|---|
Start | 27 December 1831 |
End | 2 October 1836 |
Goal | Survey South American coast |
Ships | HMS Beagle |
Achievements | Research leading to Darwin's theory of evolution |
Route | |
The second voyage of HMS Beagle, from 27 December 1831 to 2 October 1836, was the second survey expedition of HMS Beagle, made under her newest commander, Robert FitzRoy. (During Beagle's first voyage, Captain Pringle Stokes had died by suicide. The expedition's leader appointed Beagle's 1st Lieutenant, W. G. Skyring, as her acting commander. Roughly 3 months later, Admiral Otway decided to give Beagle to his Flag Leuitenant, Fitzroy.) FitzRoy had thought of the advantages of having someone onboard who could investigate geology, and sought a naturalist to accompany them as a supernumerary. At the age of 22, the graduate Charles Darwin hoped to see the tropics before becoming a parson, and accepted the opportunity. He was greatly influenced by reading Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology during the voyage. By the end of the expedition, Darwin had made his name as a geologist and fossil collector, and the publication of his journal (later known as The Voyage of the Beagle) gave him wide renown as a writer.
Beagle sailed across the Atlantic Ocean, and then carried out detailed hydrographic surveys around the coasts of southern South America, returning via Tahiti and Australia, after having circumnavigated the Earth. The initial offer to Darwin told him the voyage would last two years; it lasted almost five.
Darwin spent most of this time exploring on land: three years and three months land, 18 months at sea.[1] Early in the voyage, Darwin decided that he could write a geology book, and he showed a gift for theorising. At Punta Alta in Argentina, he made a major find of gigantic fossils of extinct mammals, then known from very few specimens. He collected and made detailed observations of plants and animals. His findings undermined his belief in the doctrine that species are fixed, and provided the basis for ideas which came to him when back in England, leading to his theory of evolution by natural selection.
Aims of the expedition
When the
An Admiralty memorandum set out the detailed instructions. The first requirement was to resolve disagreements in the earlier surveys about the longitude of Rio de Janeiro, which was essential as the base point for meridian distances. The accurate marine chronometers needed to determine longitude, had only become affordable since 1800; Beagle carried 22 chronometers to allow corrections. The ship was to stop at specified points for a four-day rating of the chronometers and to check them by astronomical observations: it was essential to take observations at Porto Praya and Fernando de Noronha to calibrate against the previous surveys of William Fitzwilliam Owen and Henry Foster. It was important to survey the extent of the Abrolhos Archipelago reefs, shown incorrectly in Albin Roussin's survey, then proceed to Rio de Janeiro to decide the exact longitude of Villegagnon Island.[8]
The real work of the survey was then to commence south of the
No time was to be wasted on elaborate drawings; charts and plans should have notes and simple views of the land as seen from the sea showing measured heights of hills. Continued records of tides and meteorological conditions were also required. An additional suggestion was for a geological survey of a circular coral atoll in the Pacific Ocean including its profile and of tidal flows, to investigate the formation of such coral reefs.[10]
Context and preparations
The previous survey expedition to South America involved HMS Adventure and HMS Beagle under the overall command of the Australian Commander Phillip Parker King. During the survey, Beagle's captain, Pringle Stokes, committed suicide and command of the ship was given to the young aristocrat Robert FitzRoy, a nephew of George FitzRoy, 4th Duke of Grafton. When a ship's boat was taken by the natives of Tierra del Fuego, FitzRoy tried taking some of them hostage, and after this failed he got occupants of a canoe to put another on the ship in exchange for buttons. He brought four of them back to England to be given a Christian education, with the idea that they could eventually become missionaries. One died of smallpox.[11][12] After Beagle's return to Devonport dockyard on 14 October 1830, Captain King retired.[13]
The 27-year-old FitzRoy had hopes of commanding a second expedition to continue the South American survey, but when he heard that the
Captain
The ship was one of the first to test the lightning conductor invented by William Snow Harris. FitzRoy obtained five examples of the Sympiesometer, a kind of mercury-free barometer patented by Alexander Adie and favoured by FitzRoy as giving the accurate readings required by the Admiralty.[15]
In addition to its officers and crew, Beagle carried several supernumeraries, passengers without an official position. FitzRoy employed a mathematical instrument maker to maintain his 22 marine chronometers kept in his cabin, as well as engaging the artist/draughtsman Augustus Earle to go in a private capacity.[15] The three Fuegians taken on the previous voyage were going to be returned to Tierra del Fuego on Beagle together with the missionary Richard Matthews.[14][17]
Naturalist and geologist
For
FitzRoy's journal written during the first voyage noted that, while investigating magnetic rocks near the
FitzRoy knew that commanding a ship could involve stress and loneliness. He was aware of his uncle
Early in August, FitzRoy discussed this position with Beaufort, who had a scientific network of friends at the
Offer of place to Darwin
Darwin fitted well the expectations of a gentleman natural philosopher and was well trained as a naturalist.[31] When he had studied geology in his second year at Edinburgh, he had found it dull, but from Easter to August 1831, he learned a great deal with Sedgwick and developed a strong interest during their geological field trip.[32] On 24 August Henslow wrote to Darwin:
...that I consider you to be the best qualified person I know of who is likely to undertake such a situation— I state this not on the supposition of yr. being a finished Naturalist, but as amply qualified for collecting, observing, & noting any thing worthy to be noted in Natural History. Peacock has the appointment at his disposal & if he can not find a man willing to take the office, the opportunity will probably be lost— Capt. F. wants a man (I understand) more as a companion than a mere collector & would not take any one however good a Naturalist who was not recommended to him likewise as a gentleman. ... The Voyage is to last 2 yrs. & if you take plenty of Books with you, any thing you please may be done ... there never was a finer chance for a man of zeal & spirit... Don't put on any modest doubts or fears about your disqualifications for I assure you I think you are the very man they are in search of.[33]
The letter went first to
Alexander Charles Wood (an undergraduate whose tutor was Peacock) wrote from Cambridge to his cousin FitzRoy to recommend Darwin.
Darwin's preparations
While he continued to get acquainted with FitzRoy, going shopping together, Darwin rushed around to arrange his supplies and equipment.
The geologist Charles Lyell asked FitzRoy to record observations on geological features such as erratic boulders. Before they left England, FitzRoy gave Darwin a copy of the first volume of Lyell's Principles of Geology which explained features as the outcome of a gradual process taking place over extremely long periods of time.[53] In his autobiography, Darwin recalled Henslow giving advice at this time to obtain and study the book, "but on no account to accept the views therein advocated".[54]
Darwin's position as a naturalist on board was as a self-funded guest with no official appointment, and he could leave the voyage at any suitable stage. At the outset,
Beaufort initially thought specimens ought to go to the British Museum, but Darwin had heard of many left waiting to be described, including botanical specimens from the first Beagle voyage. Beaufort assured him that he "should have no difficulty" as long as he "presented them to some public body" such as the Zoological or Geological societies. Henslow had set up the small Cambridge Philosophical Society museum, Darwin told him that new finds should go to the "largest & most central collection" rather than a "Country collection, let it be ever so good",[45][56] but soon expressed "hope to be able to assist the Philosoph. Society" with some specimens.[57]
FitzRoy arranged transport of specimens to England as official cargo on the Admiralty Packet Service, at no cost to Darwin even though it was his private collection.[58][59] Henslow agreed to store them at Cambridge, and Darwin confirmed with him arrangements for land carriage from the port,[60] to be funded by Darwin's father.[57]
Darwin's work on the expedition
The captain had to record his survey in painstaking paperwork, and Darwin too kept a daily log as well as detailed notebooks of his finds and speculations, and a diary which became his journal. Darwin's notebooks show complete professionalism that he had probably learnt at the
Geology was Darwin's "principal pursuit" on the expedition, and his notes on that subject were almost four times larger than his zoology notes, although he kept extensive records on both. During the voyage, he wrote to his sister that "there is nothing like geology; the pleasure of the first days partridge shooting or first days hunting cannot be compared to finding a fine group of fossil bones, which tell their story of former times with almost a living tongue". To him, investigating geology brought reasoning into play and gave him opportunities for theorising.[61]
Voyage
Charles Darwin had been told that Beagle was expected to sail about the end of September 1831,[34] but fitting out took longer. The Admiralty Instructions were received on 14 November, and on 23 November, she was moved to anchorage, ready to depart. Repeated Westerly gales caused delays, and forced them to turn back after departing on 10 and 21 December. Drunkenness at Christmas lost another day. Finally, on the morning of 27 December, Beagle left its anchorage in the Barn Pool, under Mount Edgecumbe on the west side of Plymouth Sound and set out on its surveying expedition.[63]
Atlantic islands
Beagle touched at
Six days later, they made their first landing at
Beagle's surgeon
McCormick increasingly resented the favours FitzRoy gave to assist Darwin with collecting. On 16 February, FitzRoy landed a small party including himself and Darwin on
Darwin had a special position as a guest and social equal of the captain, so junior officers called him "sir" until the captain dubbed Darwin Philos for "ship's philosopher", which became his suitably respectful nickname.[79]
Surveying South America
In South America, Beagle carried out its survey work going to and fro along the coasts to allow careful measurement and rechecking. Darwin made long journeys inland with travelling companions from the locality. He spent much of the time away from the ship, returning by prearrangement when Beagle returned to ports where mail and newspapers were received, and Darwin's notes, journals, and collections sent back to England, via the Admiralty Packet Service. He had ensured that his collections were his own and, as prearranged, batches of his specimens were shipped to England, then taken by land carriage to Henslow in Cambridge to await his return.[58][80] The first batch was sent in August 1832, journey time varied considerably but all batches were eventually delivered.[81]
Several others on board, including FitzRoy and other officers, were able amateur naturalists, and they gave Darwin generous assistance as well as making collections for the Crown, which the Admiralty placed in the British Museum.[82]
Tropical paradise and slavery
Due to heavy surf, they only stayed at Fernando de Noronha for a day to make the required observations, then FitzRoy pressed on to Bahia de Todos Santos, Brazil, to rate the chronometers and take on water. They reached the continent and arrived at the port on 28 February.[8][83] Darwin was thrilled at the magnificent sight of "the town of Bahia or St Salvador", with large ships at harbour scattered across the bay. On the next day, he was in "transports of pleasure" walking by himself in the tropical forest, and in "long naturalizing walks" with others continued to "add raptures to the former raptures".[84]
He found the sights of slavery offensive, and when FitzRoy defended the practice by describing a visit to a slaveowner whose slaves replied "no" on being asked by their master if they wished to be freed, Darwin suggested that answers in such circumstances were worthless. Enraged that his word had been questioned, FitzRoy lost his temper and banned Darwin from his company. The officers had nicknamed such outbursts "hot coffee", and within hours FitzRoy apologised, and asked Darwin to remain.[85] Later, FitzRoy had to remain silent when Captain Paget of the frigate HMS Samarang (another British vessel surveying the region which often crossed paths with the Beagle) visited them and recounted "facts about slavery so revolting" that refuted his claim.[86][87] Surveying of sandbanks around the harbour was completed on 18 March, and the ship made its way down the coast to survey the extent and depths of the Abrolhos reefs, completing and correcting Roussin's survey.[88]
They manoeuvred Beagle into Rio de Janeiro harbour "in first rate style" on 4 April, with Darwin enthusiastically helping. Amidst excitement at opening letters from home, he was taken aback by news that his close friend Fanny Owen was engaged to marry Biddulph of Chirk Castle.[89][90] Augustus Earle showed Darwin round the town, and they found a delightful cottage for lodgings at Botafogo. Darwin made arrangements with local estate owners, and on 8 April set off with them on a strenuous "riding excursion" to Rio Macaè.[91]
McCormick had made himself disagreeable to FitzRoy and first lieutenant Wickham,[74] so was "invalided home",[92] as he also was on other voyages.[23] In his 1884 memoirs, he claimed he had been "very much disappointed in my expectations of carrying out my natural history pursuits, every obstacle having been placed in the way of my getting on shore and making collections". Assistant Surgeon Benjamin Bynoe was made acting surgeon in his place.[93][94]
The required observations from Villegagnon Island at Rio showed a discrepancy of 4 miles (6.4 km) of longitude in the meridian distance from Bahia to Rio, compared to Roussin's results, and FitzRoy wrote telling Beaufort he would go back to check.[8][95]
On 24 April Darwin got back to the ship, next day his books, papers, and equipment suffered minor damage when the boat taking him to Botafogo cottage was swamped. He sent his sister his "commonplace Journal" to date, inviting criticisms, and decided to stay in the cottage with Earle while the ship went to Bahia.[94][96]
Eight of the crew had gone snipe shooting in the cutter, with an overnight stay at the Macacu River near Rio. After their return on 2 May, some fell ill with fever. The ship set off on 10 May, a seaman died en route, a ship's boy and a young midshipman died at Bahia. The ship returned to Rio on 3 June. Having confirmed that his measurements were correct, FitzRoy sent corrections to Roussin.[97][98]
At the cottage, Darwin composed his first letter outlining his collecting to Henslow. He said he would not "send a box till we arrive at Monte Video.—it is too great a loss of time both for Carpenters & myself to pack up whilst in harbor".[69] He returned to the ship on 26 June, and they set sail on 5 July.[99]
Amidst political changes, Beagle had a diplomatic role.[100] As they arrived at Montevideo on 26 July, HMS Druid signalled them to "clear for action" as British property had been seized in growing unrest after "military usurpation" deposed Lavalleja.[101][102] They took observations for the chronometers, then on 31 July sailed to Buenos Aires to meet the governor and get maps, but were met by warning shots from a guard ship. FitzRoy promptly lodged a complaint and departed, threatening a broadside in response to any further provocation. When they got back on 4 August, FitzRoy informed the Druid's captain who set off to demand an apology. On 5 August, Town officials and the British Consul asked FitzRoy for help to quell a mutiny; the garrison was held by Black troops loyal to Lavalleja. With Darwin and 50 well-armed men from the ship he arrived at the fort, then next day withdrew leaving a stand-off. Darwin enjoyed the excitement,[103][104] and wrote "It was something new to me to walk with Pistols & Cutlass through the streets of a Town".[105][106] Druid returned on 15 August, with a long apology from the government and news that the guard-ship captain had been arrested.[107]
Darwin's first box of specimens was ready, and went on the Falmouth packet Emulous departing on 19 August,[108][109] Henslow received the box in mid January.[76] On 22 August, after taking soundings in Samborombón Bay, Beagle began survey work down the coast from Cape San Antonio, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina.[110]
Fossil finds
At Bahía Blanca, in the southern part of present Buenos Aires Province, Darwin rode inland into Patagonia with gauchos: he saw them use bolas to bring down "ostriches" (rheas) and ate roast armadillo. With FitzRoy, he went for "a very pleasant cruize about the bay" on 22 September, and about ten miles (16 km) from the ship, they stopped for a while at Punta Alta. In low cliffs near the point, Darwin found conglomerate rocks containing numerous shells and fossilised teeth and bones of gigantic extinct mammals,[112] in strata near an earth layer with shells and armadillo fossils, suggesting to him quiet tidal deposits rather than a catastrophe.[113] With assistance (possibly from the young sailor Syms Covington acting as his servant[114][115]), Darwin collected numerous fossils over several days,[116] amusing others with "the cargoes of apparent rubbish which he frequently brought on board".[114]
Much of the second day was taken up with excavating a large skull which Darwin found embedded in soft rock, and seemed to him to be allied to the
They returned to Montevideo, and on 2 November revisited Buenos Aires, passing the guard-ship which now gave them due respect.[124] From questioning the finder of the Megatherium reported in the newspaper (Woodbine Parish's agent), Darwin concluded it came from the same geological formation as his own fossil finds.[125] He also "purchased fragments of some enormous bones" which he "was assured belonged to the former giants!!" In Montevideo from 14 November, he packaged his specimens, including all the fossils, and sent this cargo on the Duke of York Falmouth packet.[120][126]
The mail from home included a copy of the second volume of Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology,[54] a refutation of Lamarckism in which there was no shared ancestry of different species or overall progress to match the gradual geological change. Instead, it was a continuing cycle in which species mysteriously appeared, closely adapted to their "centres of creation", then became extinct when the environment changed to their disadvantage.[127]
Tierra del Fuego
They reached
At the island of "Buttons Land" on 23 January 1833, they set up a mission post with huts, gardens, furniture and crockery. Upon returning nine days later, the possessions had been looted and divided up equally by the natives. Matthews gave up, rejoining the ship and leaving the three civilised Fuegians to continue the missionary work. Beagle went on to the
Gauchos, rheas, fossils and geology
The two ships sailed to the
He set off again and on 1 October, while searching the cliffs of the Carcarañá River, found "an enormous gnawing tooth", and then, in a cliff of the Paraná River, saw "two great groups of immense bones" which were too soft to collect but a tooth fragment identified them as mastodons.[133][134] Illness delayed him at Santa Fe, and after seeing the fossilised casing of a huge armadillo embedded in rock, he was puzzled to find a horse tooth in the same rock layer since horses had been introduced to the continent with European migration.[135][136] They took a riverboat down the Paraná River to Buenos Aires but became entangled in a revolution as rebels allied to Rosas blockaded the city. The passport helped, and with Covington, he managed to escape in a boatload of refugees. They rejoined Beagle at Montevideo.[137]
As surveys were still in progress, Darwin set off on another 400-mile (640 km) "galloping" trip in Banda Oriental to see the Uruguay River and visit the Estancia of Mr Keen near Mercedes on the Río Negro. On 25 November, he "heard of some giants bones, which as usual turned out to be those of the Megatherium" but could only extract a few broken fragments. The next day, he visited a nearby house and bought "a head of a Megatherium which must have been when found quite perfect" for about two shillings, though the teeth had since been broken and the lower jaw had been lost. Mr Keen arranged to ship the skull downriver to Buenos Aires.[138][139][140] At Las Piedras, a clergyman let him see fossils, including a club-like tail which he sketched and called an "extraordinary weapon".[140][141] His notes included a page showing his realisation that the cliff banks of the rivers exposed two strata formed in an estuary interrupted by an undersea stratum, indicating that the land had risen and fallen.[142]
Back at Montevideo, Darwin was introduced to
After further surveying in Tierra del Fuego, they returned on 5 March 1834 to visit the missionaries but found the huts deserted. Then canoes approached, and they found that one of the natives was Jemmy Button, who had lost his possessions and had settled into the native ways, taking a wife. Darwin had never seen "so complete & grievous a change". Jemmy came on board and dined using his cutlery properly, speaking English as well as ever, then assured them that he "had not the least wish to return to England" and was "happy and contented", leaving them gifts of otter skins and arrowheads before returning to the canoe to join his wife.
About this time Darwin wrote Reflection on Reading My Geological Notes, the first of a series of essays included in his notes.[140] He speculated on possible causes of the land repeatedly being raised, and on a history of life in Patagonia as a sequence of named species.[149]
They returned to the Falkland Islands on 16 March, just after an incident where gauchos and Indians had butchered senior members of Vernet's settlement, and helped to put the revolt down. Darwin noted the immense number of organisms dependent on the kelp forests.[150] He received word from Henslow that his first dispatch of fossils had reached Cambridge, were highly prized by the expert William Clift as showing hitherto unknown species and features of the Megatherium, and had been displayed by William Buckland and Clift before the cream of British science, making Darwin's reputation.[139][151]
Beagle now sailed to southern Patagonia, and on 19 April, an expedition including FitzRoy and Darwin set off to take boats as far as possible up the Santa Cruz river, with all involved taking turns in teams dragging the boats upstream. The river cut through a series of rises, then through plateaux forming wide plains covered with shells and shingle. Darwin discussed with FitzRoy his interpretation that these terraces had been shores that had gradually raised per Lyell's theories. Several of the smaller rheas were seen in the distance but were too elusive to catch.[130] The expedition approached the Andes but had to turn back.
Darwin summarised his speculation in his essay on the Elevation of Patagonia. Though tentative, it challenged Lyell's ideas. Darwin drew on measurements by Beagle's officers, as well as his own measurements, to propose that the plains had been raised in successive stages by forces acting over a wide area, rather than smaller-scale actions in a continuous movement. However, he supported Lyell in finding evidence to dismiss a sudden deluge when normal processes were suddenly speeded. Seashells he had found far inland still showing their colour suggested to him that the process had been relatively recent and could have affected human history.[152]
West coast of South America
Beagle and Adventure now surveyed the Straits of Magellan before sailing north up the west coast, reaching Chiloé Island in the wet and heavily wooded Chiloé Archipelago on 28 June 1834. They then spent the next six months surveying the coast and islands southwards.[a] On Chiloé, Darwin found fragments of black lignite and petrified wood, at least two of which the British Geological Survey discovered in 2011 locked away in their collection labelled "unregistered fossil plants". Exchanged with Joseph Dalton Hooker about ten years later, one slide was signed "Chiloe, C. Darwin Esq".[156]
They arrived at
After waiting for Darwin, Beagle sailed on 11 November to survey the Chonos Archipelago. From here, they saw the eruption of the volcano Osorno in the Andes. They sailed north, and Darwin wondered about the fossils he had found. The giant Mastodons and Megatheriums were extinct, but he had found no geological signs of a "diluvial debacle" or of the changed circumstances that, in Lyell's view, led to species no longer being adapted to the position they were created to fit. He agreed with Lyell's idea of "the gradual birth & death of species", but, unlike Lyell, Darwin was willing to believe Giovanni Battista Brocchi's idea that extinct species had somehow aged and died out.[159][160]
They arrived at the port of
They returned to Valparaiso on 11 March, Darwin set out on another trek up the Andes three days later and, on 21 March, reached the continental divide at 13,000 ft (4,000 m): even here, he found fossil seashells in the rocks. He felt the glorious view "was like watching a thunderstorm, or hearing in the full Orchestra a Chorus of the Messiah."[163] After going on to Mendoza, they were returning by a different pass when they found a petrified forest of fossilised trees, crystallised in a sandstone escarpment showing him that they had been on a Pacific beach when the land sank, burying them in the sand which had been compressed into rock, then had gradually been raised with the continent to stand at 7,000 ft (2,100 m) in the mountains. On returning to Valparaiso with half a mule's load of specimens, he wrote to his family on 23 April that his findings, if accepted, would be crucial to the theory of the formation of the world. After another gruelling expedition in the Andes, while Beagle was refitted, he rejoined it at Copiapó on 5 July and sailed to Lima but found an armed insurrection in progress and had to stay with the ship. Here he was writing up his notes when he realised that Lyell's idea, that coral atolls were on the rims of rising extinct volcanoes, made less sense than the volcanoes gradually sinking so that the coral reefs around the island kept building themselves close to sea level and became an atoll as the volcano disappeared below. This was a theory he would examine when they reached such islands.[164][165]
On 14 June, when about to leave Valparaiso,[166] FitzRoy had received news of the shipwreck of HMS Challenger captained by his friend Michael Seymour[167] (Darwin had arranged two boxes for this packet ship early in the year[81][168]). On investigation, FitzRoy found that Commodore Mason was unwilling to take HMS Blonde to the rescue for fear of lee-shore hazards, so FitzRoy "had to bully him & at last offered to go as Pilot". After "a tremendous quarrel" with hints to the Commodore of court-martial, they took Blonde to Concepción. FitzRoy rode about 64 kilometres (40 mi) on horseback with a guide to reach Seymour's camp at the Lebu River, then returned to further disputes before Blonde set out and rescued the survivors of the shipwreck on 5 July.[169][167] Wickham took Beagle on to reach Copiapò on 3 July, two days before Darwin rejoined the ship and they continued on to Lima. On 9 September Blonde brought FitzRoy to join them at Lima.[170]
Galápagos Islands
A week out of Lima, Beagle reached the Galápagos Islands on 15 September 1835. The next day Captain FitzRoy dropped anchor near where the town of Puerto Baquerizo Moreno is now sited, at Chatham Island. At the location that is now known as Frigatebird Hill (Cerro Tijeretas), Darwin spent his first hour onshore in the Galapagos islands.[171]
Darwin eagerly looked forward to seeing newly formed volcanic islands and took every opportunity to go ashore while Beagle was methodically moved round to chart the coast. He found broken black rocky volcanic lava scorching under the hot sun, and made detailed geological notes of features including
Beagle sailed on to Charles Island. By chance, they were greeted by the "Englishman" Nicholas Lawson, acting Governor of Galápagos for the Republic of the Equator, who accompanied them up to the penal colony. It was said that tortoises differed in the shape of the shells from island to island, and Darwin noted Lawson's statement that on seeing a tortoise, he could "pronounce with certainty from which island it has been brought".[175] Though Darwin remembered this later, he did not pay much attention at the time. However, he found a mockingbird and "fortunately happened to observe" that it differed from the Chatham Island specimen, so from then on, he carefully noted where mockingbirds had been caught.[32][174] He industriously collected all the animals, plants, insects and reptiles, and speculated about finding "from future comparison to what district or 'centre of creation' the organized beings of this archipelago must be attached."[176] At this stage, his thoughts reflected Lyell's rejection of transmutation of species.[177]
They went on to
After passing the northern islands of Abingdon, Tower and Bindloe, Darwin was put ashore at James Island for nine days together with the surgeon Benjamin Bynoe and their servants. They busily collected all sorts of specimens while Beagle went back to Chatham Island for freshwater.[180]
After further surveying, Beagle set sail for Tahiti on 20 October 1835. Darwin wrote up his notes, and to his astonishment, found that all the mockingbirds caught on Charles, Albemarle, James and Chatham Islands differed from island to island.[32] He wrote "This birds which is so closely allied to the Thenca of Chili (Callandra of B. Ayres) is singular from existing as varieties or distinct species in the different Isds.— I have four specimens from as many Isds.— These will be found to be 2 or 3 varieties.— Each variety is constant in its own Island....".[181]
Tahiti to Australia
They sailed on, dining on Galapagos tortoises, and passed the atoll of Honden Island on 9 November. They passed through the Low Islands archipelago, with Darwin remarking that they had "a very uninteresting appearance; a long brilliantly white beach is capped by a low bright line of green vegetation." Arriving at Tahiti on 15 November, he soon found interest in luxuriant vegetation and the pleasant intelligent natives who showed the benefits of Christianity, refuting allegations he had read about tyrannical missionaries overturning indigenous cultures.[182]
On 19 December, they reached New Zealand, where Darwin thought the tattooed Māori to be savages with the character of a much lower order than the Tahitians. He also noted that they and their homes were "filthily dirty and offensive". Darwin saw missionaries bringing improvement in character, as well as new farming practices with an exemplary "English farm" employing natives. Richard Matthews was left here with his elder brother Joseph Matthews who was a missionary at Kaitaia. Darwin and FitzRoy agreed that missionaries had been unfairly misrepresented in tracts, particularly one written by the artist Augustus Earle which he had left on the ship. Darwin also noted many English residents of the most worthless character, including runaway convicts from New South Wales. By 30 December, he was glad to leave New Zealand.[183]
The first sight of Australia on 12 January 1836 reminded him of Patagonia, but inland the country improved, and he was soon filled with admiration at the bustling city of
Beagle visited
Keeling Island homewards
FitzRoy's instructions from the Admiralty required a detailed geological survey of a circular
Arriving at Mauritius on 29 April 1836, Darwin was impressed by the civilised prosperity of the French colony, which had come under British rule. He toured the island, examining its volcanic mountains and fringing coral reefs. The Surveyor-general Captain Lloyd took him on the only elephant on the island to see an elevated coral plain.[186][192] By then, FitzRoy was writing the official Narrative of the Beagle voyages, and after reading Darwin's diary he proposed a joint publication. Darwin asked his family about FitzRoy's idea "to have the disposal & arranging of my journal & to mingle it with his own".[193]
Beagle reached the
Darwin explored the geology of the area, reaching conclusions about the slate formation and the injection of granite seams as a liquid which differed from the ideas of Lyell and Sedgwick. The zoologist Andrew Smith showed him formations, and later discussed the large animals living on sparse vegetation, showing that a lack of luxuriant vegetation did not explain the extinction of the giant creatures in South America.[199]
Around 15 June, Darwin and FitzRoy visited the noted astronomer Sir
In Cape Town, missionaries were being accused of causing racial tension and profiteering, and after Beagle set to sea on 18 June, FitzRoy wrote an open letter to the evangelical South African Christian Recorder on the Moral State of Tahiti incorporating extracts from both his and Darwin's diaries to defend the reputation of missionaries. This was given to a passing ship that took it to Cape Town to become FitzRoy's (and Darwin's) first published work.[201]
On 8 July, they stopped at
At this stage, Darwin had an acute interest in the island biogeography, and his description of St Helena as "a little centre of creation" in his geological diary reflects Charles Lyell's speculation in volume 2 of Principles of Geology that the island would have acted as a "focus of creative force".[199] He later recalled believing in the permanence of species, but "as far as I can remember, vague doubts occasionally flitted across my mind".[205] When organising his Ornithological Notes between mid June and August,[206] Darwin expanded on his initial notes on the Galapagos mockingbird Mimus thenca:[32]
These birds are closely allied in appearance to the Thenca of Chile or Callandra of la Plata. ... In each Isld. each kind is exclusively found: habits of all are indistinguishable. When I recollect, the fact that the form of the body, shape of scales & general size, the Spaniards can at once pronounce, from which Island any Tortoise may have been brought. When I see these Islands in sight of each other, & [but del.] possessed of but a scanty stock of animals, tenanted by these birds, but slightly differing in structure & filling the same place in Nature, I must suspect they are only varieties.
The only fact of a similar kind of which I am aware, is the constant asserted difference – between the wolf-like Fox of East & West Falkland Islds.
If there is the slightest foundation for these remarks the zoology of Archipelagoes – will be well worth examining; for such facts [would inserted] undermine the stability of Species.[207]
The term "would" before "undermine" had been added after writing what is now noted as the first expression of his doubts about species being immutable. That led to him becoming convinced about the transmutation of species and hence evolution.[177] In opposing transmutation, Lyell had proposed that varieties arose due to changes in the environment, but these varieties lived in similar conditions though each on its own island. Darwin had just reviewed similar inconsistencies with mainland bird genera such as Pteroptochos.[208] Though his suspicions about the Falkland Island fox may have been unsupported, the differences in Galápagos tortoises between islands were remembered, and he later wrote that he had been greatly struck from around March 1836 by the character of South American fossils and species on the Galapagos Archipelago, noting "These facts origin (especially latter) of all my views".[209]
Beagle reached Ascension Island on 19 July 1836,[210] and Darwin was delighted to receive letters from his sisters with news that Sedgwick had written to Dr. Butler: "He is doing admirably in S. America, & has already sent home a Collection above all praise.— It was the best thing in the world for him that he went out on the Voyage of Discovery— There was some risk of his turning out an idle man: but his character will now be fixed, & if God spare his life, he will have a great name among the Naturalists of Europe."[211] Darwin later recalled how he "clambered over the mountains... with a bounding step and made the volcanic rocks resound under my geological hammer!."[212] He agreed with the saying attributed to the people of St Helena that "We know we live on a rock, but the poor people at Ascension live on a cinder", and noted the care taken to sustain "houses, gardens & fields placed near the summit of the central mountain".[210] (In the 1840s, Darwin worked with Hooker, who proposed in 1847 that the Royal Navy shall import tree species, a project started in 1850 which led to the creation of an artificial cloud forest on what is now Green Mountain.[213])
On 23 July, they set off again longing to reach home, but FitzRoy, who wanted to ensure the accuracy of his longitude measurements, took the ship across the
Return
On the stormy night of 2 October 1836, immediately after arriving in Falmouth,
Darwin's father gave him an allowance that enabled him to put aside other careers. As a scientific celebrity with a reputation established by his fossils and the wide distribution of Extracts from Letters to Henslow on South American natural history and geology, Darwin toured London's social institutions. By this time, he was part of the "scientific establishment", collaborating with expert naturalists to describe his specimens and working on ideas he had been developing during the voyage. Charles Lyell gave him enthusiastic backing. In December 1836, Darwin presented a talk to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. He wrote a paper proving that Chile, and the South American continent, was slowly rising, which he read to the Geological Society of London on 4 January 1837.[223]
Darwin was willing to have his diary published mixed in with FitzRoy's account, but his relatives, including Emma and Hensleigh Wedgwood, urged that it be published separately. On 30 December, the question was settled by FitzRoy taking the advice of William Broderip that Darwin's journal should form the third volume of the Narrative. Darwin set to work reorganising his diary, trimming it, and incorporating scientific material from his notes. He completed his Journal and Remarks (now commonly known as The Voyage of the Beagle) in August 1837, but FitzRoy was slower, and the three volumes were published in August 1839.[224]
Syms Covington stayed with Darwin as his servant. Then, on 25 February 1839, (shortly after Darwin's marriage), Covington left on good terms and migrated to Australia.[225]
Expert publications on Darwin's collections
Darwin had shown great ability as a collector and had done the best he could with the reference books he had on the ship. It was now the province of recognised expert specialists to establish which specimens were unknown, and make their considered taxonomic decisions on defining and naming new species.[226]
Fossils
Richard Owen had expertise in comparative anatomy, and his professional judgements revealed a succession of similar species in the same locality, giving Darwin insights which he would later recall as being central to his new views.[226] Owen met Darwin on 29 October 1836 and quickly took on the task of describing these new fossils. At that time the only fully described fossil mammals from South America were three species of Mastodon and the gigantic Megatherium.[227] On 9 November, Darwin wrote to his sister that "Some of them are turning out great treasures." The near-complete skeleton from Punta Alta was apparently very closely allied to anteaters, but of the extraordinary size of a small horse. The rhinoceros-sized head bought for two shillings near the city of Mercedes was not a megatherium, but "as far as they can guess, must have been a gnawing animal. Conceive a Rat or a Hare of such a size— What famous Cats they ought to have had in those days!"[228]
Over the following years, Owen published descriptions of the most important fossils, naming several as new species. He described the fossils from
Owen decided that the fossils of polygonal plates of bony armour found at several locations were not from the Megatherium as Cuvier's description implied, but from a huge armadillo, as Darwin had briefly thought. Owen found a description of an earlier unnamed specimen which he named
The huge skull from near Mercedes was named Toxodon by Owen,[230] and he showed that the "enormous gnawing tooth" from the cliffs of the Carcarañá River was a molar from this species.[231] The finds near Mercedes also included a large fragment of Glyptodont armour and a head that Owen initially identified as a Glossotherium, but later decided was a Mylodon.[232] Owen found fragments of the jaw and a tooth of another Toxodon in the fossils from Punta Alta.[116]
The fossils from near
The "soft as cheese" Mastodon bones at the Paraná River were identified as two gigantic skeletons of Mastodon andium, and mastodon teeth were also identified from Santa Fe and the Carcarañá River.[234] The pieces of spine and a hind leg from Port S. Julian, which Darwin had thought came from "some large animal, I fancy a Mastodon", gave Owen difficulties, as the creature which he named Macrauchenia appeared to be a "gigantic and most extraordinary pachyderm", allied to the Palaeotherium, but with affinities to the llama and the camel.[235] The fossils at Punta Alta included a pachyderm tooth which was thought probably came from Macrauchenia.[116]
Footnotes
- Straits of Magellan. Hudson was the first to realise that the Isthmus of Ofqui made this route impossible.[153] Enrique Simpson found instead FitzRoy's mapping of little use noting in 1870 that "Fitzroy's chart, that is quite exact until that point [Melinka 43°53' S], is worthless further ahead...". Thus, south of Melinka Simpson relied more on the late 18th century sketches of José de Moraleda y Montero.[154] Simpson's contemporary Francisco Vidal Gormaz was critical of the over-all work of FitzRoy and Darwin stating that they had failed to acknowledge the importance of the Patagonian islands.[155]
Notes
- ^ Browne & Neve 1989, p. 16
- ^ a b Browne & Neve 1989, p. 9.
- ^ Taylor 2008, p. 17.
- ^ Browne & Neve 1989, p. 3.
- ^ King 1839, p. xv.
- ^ a b Taylor 2008, p. 18.
- ^ Darwin 1845, p. 1.
- ^ a b c FitzRoy 1839, pp. 24–26
- ^ FitzRoy 1839, pp. 26–33
- ^ FitzRoy 1839, pp. 33–40
- ^ Browne 1995, pp. 147–148.
- ^ FitzRoy 1839, pp. 4–14
- ^ Browne & Neve 1989, pp. 3–4
- ^ a b FitzRoy 1839, pp. 13–16
- ^ a b c d FitzRoy 1839, pp. 17–22
- ^ "HMS Beagle – Port of science and discovery – Port Cities". Retrieved 30 January 2009.
- ^ Browne & Neve 1989, pp. 4–5
- ^ Browne 1995, pp. 150–151, 204–209
- ^ a b c "Letter no. 131, Charles Darwin to Robert FitzRoy, [19 September 1831], [London]". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
- ^ Browne 1995, p. 208
- ^ "Letter no. 387, Robert FitzRoy to Charles Darwin, 16 November 1837". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
- ^ King 1839, pp. 360, 385
- ^ a b van Wyhe 2013, p. 3.
- ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 104
- ^ Browne 1995, pp. 148–149
- ^ van Wyhe 2013, pp. 5–7.
- ^ a b Browne & Neve 1989, pp. 4–7
- ^ "Letter no. 104, George Peacock to J. S. Henslow [6 or 13 August 1831]". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
- ^ "George Peacock". Darwin Correspondence Project. 18 October 2017. Retrieved 29 January 2022.
- ^ a b "Letter no. 115, Charles Darwin to Susan Darwin, [4 September 1831], Cambridge". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
- ^ van Wyhe 2013, p. 6.
- ^ Darwin Online.
- ^ "Letter no. 105, J. S. Henslow to Charles Darwin, 24 August 1831, Cambridge". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
- ^ a b c "Letter no. 106, George Peacock to Charles Darwin, [c. 26 August 1831]". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
- ^ Peter Lucas (1 January 2010). "The recovery of time past: Darwin at Barmouth on the eve of the Beagle". Darwin Online. Retrieved 5 December 2021.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ "Letter no. 107, Charles Darwin to J. S. Henslow, 30 [August 1831], Shrewsbury". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
- ^ "Letter no. 112, Charles Darwin to Francis Beaufort, 1 September [1831], Shrewsbury". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
- ^ "Letter no. 113, Francis Beaufort to Robert FitzRoy, 1 September [1831]". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
- ^ Browne 1995, pp. 158–159
- ^ a b "Darwin Correspondence Project » letter: 117 Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, S. E., (5 Sept 1831)". Retrieved 12 November 2014.
- ^ a b "Darwin Correspondence Project » letter: 118 – Darwin, C. R. to Henslow, J. S., (5 Sept 1831)". Retrieved 13 November 2014.
- ^ a b "Letter no. 132, Charles Darwin to W. D. Fox, 19 [September 1831], 17 Spring Gardens (& here I shall remain till I start)". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
- ^ Browne 1995, pp. 160–161
Darwin, C. R. Recollections of the development of my mind & character [Autobiography [1876-4.1882] CUL-DAR26.1–121) Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker. Darwin Online. p. 49 - ^ a b "Letter no. 122, Charles Darwin to Susan Darwin, [9 September 1831], [17 Spring Gardens]". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
- ^ a b "Letter no. 123, Charles Darwin to J. S. Henslow, 9 [September 1831], [London]". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
- ^ Darwin, C. R. (1831). "[Notes on preserving Beagle specimens]. CUL-DAR29.3.78". darwin-online.org.uk. Retrieved 3 January 2021.
refers to: Benjamin Leadbeater, Henslow, Yarrell, Phillip Parker King, John Lort Stokes, Robert Edmond Grant, Frederick William Hope
- ^ a b John van Wyhe (ed.). "Darwin's 'Journal' (1809–1881). CUL-DAR158.1–76". Darwin Online. pp. 7 verso–8 verso 1831. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project » letter: 126 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, S. E., (14 Sept 1831)". Retrieved 13 November 2014.
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project » letter: 127 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, S. E., 17 (Sept 1831)". Retrieved 13 November 2014.
- ^ a b Kees Rookmaaker & John van Wyhe (ed.). "Darwin, C. R. [Beagle diary (1831-1836)]. EH88202366". Darwin Online. p. 2. Retrieved 9 December 2021.
got to St Albans & so by the Wonder to Shrewsbury on Thursday 22d [September 1831] .... The Wonder coach ran daily, from Shrewsbury to London via Wolverhampton, Coventry and St. Albans, covering the 158 miles in 15 3/4 hours. It was started in 1825 by the landlord of the Lion Inn, Isaac Taylor and his two brothers.
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project » letter: 142 – Darwin, C. R. to FitzRoy, Robert (10 Oct 1831)". Retrieved 13 November 2014.
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project » letter: 139 – Darwin, C. R. to FitzRoy, Robert (4 or 11 Oct 1831)". Retrieved 13 November 2014.
- ^ Browne & Neve 1989, pp. 12
- ^ a b Keynes 2001, p. 27
- ^ "Letter 119 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, S. E. (6 Sept 1831)". Darwin Correspondence Project.
- ^ Browne 1995, pp. 208–209
- ^ a b c "Letter no. 144, Charles Darwin to J. S. Henslow, 30 [October 1831], [London]". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
- ^ a b Browne 1995, p. 210.
- ^ Browne & Neve 1989, pp. 14–15.
- ^ "Letter no. 140, Charles Darwin to J. S. Henslow, [4 or 11 October 1831], [London]". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
- ^ a b Keynes 2000, pp. ix–xi.
- ^ Keynes 2000, pp. x.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 4–17.
FitzRoy 1839, p. 42. - ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 19–22
- ^ Darwin 1839, pp. 1–7.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 22–26
- Passer iagoensis, the Cape Verde sparrow or Iago sparrow.
- ^ Herbert 1991, pp. 164–170.
- ^ a b c "Letter no. 171, Charles Darwin to J. S. Henslow, 18 May – 16 June 1832, Rio de Janeiro". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
- ^ Darwin 1958, p. 81
- ^ Letter to L. Horner, Down, 29 August 1844
- ^ Freeman 2007, p. 196
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 26–28
- ^ a b "Letter no. 171, Charles Darwin to J. S. Henslow, 18 May – 16 June 1832, Rio de Janeiro". Darwin Correspondence Project. 2 January 2022. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
as for the Doctor he has gone back to England.—as he chose to make himself disagreeable to the Captain & to Wickham He was a philosopher of rather an antient date; at St Jago by his own account he made general remarks during the first fortnight & collected particular facts during the last.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 28–34
- ^ a b "Letter 196 — Henslow, J. S. to Darwin, C. R., 15 & 21 Jan (1833)". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
- ^ Browne 1995, pp. 202–204
- ^ FitzRoy 1839, pp. 56–58.
Keynes 2001, pp. 36–38. - ^ Browne 1995, p. 195
- ^ Browne & Neve 1989, pp. 14–17.
- ^ a b Keynes 2000, p. 319.
- ^ Browne & Neve 1989, pp. 11–12.
- ^ FitzRoy 1839, pp. 58–60..
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 41–44..
- ^ Darwin 1958, pp. 73–74..
- ^ Keynes 2001, p. 45.
- ^ Chaffin 2022, pp. iii.
- ^ Keynes 2001, p. 48..
- ^ "Letter no. 164, Charles Darwin to Caroline Darwin, 2–6 April [1832]". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 6 January 2022.
- ^ "Darwin's first love". Darwin Correspondence Project. 10 February 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 51–52.
- ^ Browne 1995, pp. 204–205 "invalided home, a naval euphemism for personal disagreements and dissatisfactions."
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 60–61..
- ^ a b "Letter no. 166, Charles Darwin to Caroline Darwin, 25–26 April [1832], Botofogo Bay". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
- ^ FitzRoy 1839, pp. 74–75..
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 60–61, 64–65..
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 64–65, 71–72..
- ^ FitzRoy 1839, pp. 76–79..
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 77–80..
- ^ Thomson 2003, pp. 162–163.
- ^ Taylor 2008, p. 101.
- ^ Keynes 2001, p. 85.
- ^ Thomson 2003, pp. 163–164.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 86–90.
- ^ Taylor 2008, pp. 101, 104.
- ^ "Letter no. 177, Charles Darwin to Susan Darwin, 14 July – 7 August [1832]". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 93.
- ^ "Letter no. 178, Charles Darwin to J. S. Henslow, [23 July –] 15 August [1832], Monte Video". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
- ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 127.
- ^ FitzRoy 1839, pp. 94–97..
- ^ Armitstead, Claire (25 November 2015). "Unique watercolour of Darwin on HMS Beagle tipped to fetch upwards of £50,000 at auction". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 November 2015.
- Puerto Belgranonaval base.
- ^ 'Cinnamon and port wine': an introduction to the Rio Notebook, Bahía Blanca, September—October 1832.
- ^ a b FitzRoy 1839, pp. 106–107.
- ^ "The Journal of Syms Covington – Chapter Three". Archived from the original on 26 August 2006. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
- ^ a b c d e Darwin 1846, p. 84.
- ^ Keynes 2001, p. 107..
- ^ a b Keynes 2001, p. 109
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 188 — Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., 24 Oct & 24 Nov (1832)".
- ^ a b "Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 192 — Darwin, C. R. to Henslow, J. S., (26 Oct–) 24 Nov 1832".
- ^ Browne 1995, pp. 223–224
Darwin 1835, p. 7
Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 210
Eldredge 2006 - ^ Keynes 2001, p. 110.
- ^ a b Darwin 1846, p. 81.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 111–113.
- ^ "Letter no. 204, Charles Darwin to J. S. Henslow, 11 April 1833". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 117–118.
- ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 131
- ^ Darwin 1871, pp. 34–35, 180–181, Beagle Diary 1832 December 18th
- ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 134–138
- ^ a b c Barlow 1963, pp. 271–5.
- ^ Barlow 1945, pp. 193–196.
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 215 — Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., 20 Sept (1833)".
- ^ Keynes 2001, p. 193..
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 229 — Darwin, C. R. to Henslow, J. S., 12 Nov 1833".
- Darwin Online.
- ^ Barlow 1945, p. 210.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 195–198..
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 203–204..
- ^ a b c "Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 238 — Darwin, C. R. to Henslow, J. S., Mar 1834".
- ^ a b c "'A man who has seen half the world': Introduction to the Banda Oriental Notebook".
- Glyptodonttail.
- ^ 'Banda Oriental S. Cruz.' Beagle field notebook. EH1.9, p. 37
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 208–214
Barlow 1967, p. 84. - ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 217–218.
- ^ Barlow 1963, p. 272.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 226–227..
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 222–223.
- ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 146–147.
- ^ Herbert 1995, p. 23.
- ^ Keynes 2000, p. xix..
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 213 — Henslow, J. S. to Darwin, C. R., 31 Aug 1833".
- ^ Herbert 1991, pp. 174–179.
- ^ Sepúlveda Ortíz, Jorge (1998), "Francisco Hudson, un destacado marino poco conocido en nuestra historia" (PDF), Revista de Marina (in Spanish): 1–20, archived from the original (PDF) on 23 January 2019, retrieved 17 February 2019
- ^ Simpson, E. (1874). Esploraciones hechas por la Corbeta Chacabuco al mando del capitán de fragata don Enrique M. Simpson en los Archipiélagos de Guaitecas, Chonos i Taitao. Santiago. Imprenta Nacional.
- .
- ^ "Joseph Hooker, botanist to the Survey". British Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
- ^ "Letter no. 251, Charles Darwin to J. S. Henslow, 24 July – 7 November 1834, Valparaiso". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 249–264.
- ^ Charles Darwin (February 1835). "The position of the bones of Mastodon (?) at Port St Julian is of interest".
- ^ "Darwin Online: 'Hurrah Chiloe': an introduction to the Port Desire Notebook".
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 292–303..
- ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 158–162.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 304, 308–309.
- ^ a b "Letter no. 275 – Charles Darwin to Susan Elizabeth Darwin – 23 April 1835". Darwin Correspondence Project. 6 December 2021. Retrieved 6 December 2021.
- ^ Herbert 1991, pp. 187–190
- ^ Thomson 2003, p. 190.
- ^ a b "Letter no. 281, Charles Darwin to Caroline Darwin, [19] July – [12 August] 1835, Lima". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
- ^ "Letter no. 263, Charles Darwin to J. S. Henslow, 8 November 1834, Beagle, Valparaiso". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 25 January 2022.
- ^ Thomson 2003, pp. 190–193.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 343–344, 350.
- ^ Grant, K. Thalia and Estes, Gregory B. "Darwin in Galapagos: Footsteps to a New World." 2009. Princeton University Press.
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- ^ a b c Gould 1839, pp. 62–64
- ^ Keynes 2000, p. 291.
- ^ Keynes 2001, p. 356.
- ^ a b Keynes 2000, p. xix.
Eldredge 2006 - ^ Grant, K. Thalia and Estes, Gregory B. "Darwin in Galapagos: Footsteps to a New World." 2009 Princeton University Press.
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- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 360–367.
- ^ Keynes 2000, p. 298.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 364–378
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- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 398–399.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 402–403.
- ^ a b "Darwin Online: 'Coccatoos & Crows': An introduction to the Sydney Notebook".
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 408–410.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 410–412.
- ^ FitzRoy 1839, pp. 38–39, 629–637.
- ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 413–419.
- ^ Darwin 1845, pp. 467–468.
- ^ Darwin 1845, pp. 483–486.
- ^ "Letter no. 301, Charles Darwin to Caroline Darwin, 29 April 1836, Port Lewis, Mauritius". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
- ^ "Letter no. 296, Catherine Darwin to Charles Darwin, 29 January 1836, Shrewsbury". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
- ^ "Letter no. 302, Charles Darwin to Catherine Darwin, 3 June 1836, Cape of Good Hope". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
- ^ Darwin 1835.
- ^ "Letter no. 291, Caroline Darwin & Charlotte Langton to Charles Darwin, 29 December [1835], [Shrewsbury]". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
- ^ Darwin 1835, Darwin 1836, "Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 290 – Darwin, R. W. to Henslow, J. S., 28 Dec 1835".
- ^ a b c d e "Darwin Online: 'Runaway Rascals': an introduction to the Despoblado Notebook".
- ^ van Wyhe 2007, p. 197
Babbage 1838, pp. 225–227 - ^ Browne 1995, pp. 330–331
FitzRoy, R; Darwin, C (September 1836). "A letter, containing remarks on the moral state of Tahiti, New Zealand, &c". South African Christian Recorder. pp. 221–238.At Sea, 28th June, 1836
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 304 — Darwin, C. R. to Henslow, J. S., 9 July 1836".
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- ^ Poulton 1896, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Keynes 2000, p. xx.
- ^ Barlow 1963, p. 262.
- ^ Hodge 2009, pp. 93–98.
- ^ Barlow 1933, p. xiii.
- ^ a b Keynes 2001, pp. 431–432
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 288 — Darwin, S. E. to Darwin, C. R., 22 Nov 1835".
- ^ Darwin 1958, pp. 81–82.
- ^ Falcon, Howard (1 September 2010). "Creation of an artificial cloud forest". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 18 September 2010.
- ^ "Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 306 — Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, S. E., 4 Aug (1836)".
- ^ a b Keynes 2001, p. 447
- ISBN 9789811208225. – see photographs.
- ^ a b c Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 195.
- ^ a b "Letter 310 – Darwin, C. R. to FitzRoy, Robert 6 October (1836)". Darwin Correspondence Project.
- ^ "Letter 307 – Darwin, C. R. to Josiah Wedgwood II (5 October 1836)". Darwin Correspondence Project.
- ^ Browne 1995, p. 340.
- ^ Darwin 1958, p. 79.
- ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 197.
- ^ Darwin, C. R. (1837). "Observations of proofs of recent elevation on the coast of Chili, made during the survey of His Majesty's Ship Beagle commanded by Capt. FitzRoy R.N." Proceedings of the Geological Society of London. 2: 446–449.
- ^ Keynes 2001, p. xviii–xx.
- ^ Keynes 2001, p. 449.
- ^ a b Herbert 1980, p. 11.
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- ^ Darwin 1846, p. 92
- ^ Darwin 1846, p. 90
- ^ Darwin 1846, pp. 88–92.
- ^ Darwin 1846, p. 95
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External links
- "Darwin, a naturalist's voyage around world". CNRS, Paris, France. Retrieved 9 November 2009.
- "AboutDarwin.com – Beagle Voyage". Archived from the original on 12 November 2007. Retrieved 21 November 2007.
- Rookmaaker, Kees (2009), Darwin's itinerary on the voyage of the Beagle, Darwin Online, retrieved 18 August 2009
- Grant K. Thalia and, Estes Gregory B. (2009), Darwin's itinerary in Galapagos
- "Darwin and the Beagle voyage". Darwin Correspondence Project. 11 February 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
Further reading
- The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online – Darwin Online; Darwin's publications, private papers and bibliography, supplementary works including biographies, obituaries and reviews. Free to use, includes items not in public domain.
- Works by Charles Darwin at Project Gutenberg; public domain
- Darwin Correspondence Project Text and notes for most of his letters
- Darwin in Galapagos: Footsteps to a New World