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{{Main|History of the European Coal and Steel Community (1945–57)}}
{{Main|History of the European Coal and Steel Community (1945–57)}}
[[File:Royal Air Force Bomber Command, 1942-1945. CL3400.jpg|thumb|After two devastating world wars, the political climate favoured an international unity that could preserve peace in Europe effectively. ([[Hamburg]], after a massive [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] [[Bombing of Hamburg in World War II|bombing in 1943]] in the picture)]]
[[File:Royal Air Force Bomber Command, 1942-1945. CL3400.jpg|thumb|After two devastating world wars, the political climate favoured an international unity that could preserve peace in Europe effectively. ([[Hamburg]], after a massive [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] [[Bombing of Hamburg in World War II|bombing in 1943]] in the picture)]]
World War II from 1939 to 1945 saw a human and economic catastrophe which hit Europe hardest. It demonstrated the horrors of war, and also of extremism, through [[the Holocaust]] and the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]. Once again, there was a desire to ensure it could never happen again, particularly with the war giving the world nuclear weapons. Most European countries failed to maintain their [[Great Power]] status, with the exception of the USSR, which became a superpower after World War II and maintained the status for 45 years. This left two rival ideologically opposed superpowers.<ref>[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=243 Europe in ruins in the aftermath of the Second World War] ena.lu</ref>
World War II from 1939 to 1945 saw a human and economic catastrophe that hit Europe hardest. It demonstrated the horrors of war, and also of extremism, through [[the Holocaust]] and the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]. Once again, there was a desire to ensure it could never happen again, particularly with the war giving the world nuclear weapons. Most European countries failed to maintain their [[Great Power]] status, with the exception of the USSR, which became a superpower after World War II and maintained the status for 45 years. This left two rival ideologically opposed superpowers.<ref>[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=243 Europe in ruins in the aftermath of the Second World War] ena.lu</ref>


To ensure Germany could never threaten the peace again, its heavy industry was partly dismantled (See: [[Allied plans for German industry after World War II]]) and its main coal-producing regions were detached ([[Saarland]], [[Province of Silesia|Silesia]]), or put under international control ([[Ruhr area]]).<ref>*[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=6584 French proposal regarding the detachment of German industrial regions] 8 September 1945<br />[http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/saar.htm France, Germany and the Struggle for the War-making Natural Resources of the Rhineland][http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=465 Letter from Konrad Adenauer to Robert Schuman] (26 July 1949) Warning him of the consequences of the dismantling policy. (requires Flash Player)<br />[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=16822 Letter from Ernest Bevin to Robert Schuman] (30 October 1949) British and French foreign ministers. Bevin argues that they need to reconsider the Allies' dismantling policy in the occupied zones (requires Flash Player)</ref> (See: [[Monnet Plan]])
To ensure Germany could never threaten the peace again, its heavy industry was partly dismantled (See: [[Allied plans for German industry after World War II]]) and its main coal-producing regions were detached ([[Saarland]], [[Province of Silesia|Silesia]]), or put under international control ([[Ruhr area]]).<ref>*[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=6584 French proposal regarding the detachment of German industrial regions] 8 September 1945<br />[http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/saar.htm France, Germany and the Struggle for the War-making Natural Resources of the Rhineland][http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=465 Letter from Konrad Adenauer to Robert Schuman] (26 July 1949) Warning him of the consequences of the dismantling policy. (requires Flash Player)<br />[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=16822 Letter from Ernest Bevin to Robert Schuman] (30 October 1949) British and French foreign ministers. Bevin argues that they need to reconsider the Allies' dismantling policy in the occupied zones (requires Flash Player)</ref> (See: [[Monnet Plan]])
Line 44: Line 44:
Throughout the 1960s tensions began to show with France seeking to limit supranational power and rejecting the membership of the United Kingdom. However, in 1965 an agreement was reached to merge the three communities under a single set of institutions, and hence the [[Merger Treaty]] was signed in Brussels and came into force on 1 July 1967 creating the [[European Communities]].<ref>[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=473 Merging the executives] ena.lu</ref> [[Jean Rey (politician)|Jean Rey]] [[President of the European Commission|presided over]] the first merged Commission ([[Rey Commission]]).
Throughout the 1960s tensions began to show with France seeking to limit supranational power and rejecting the membership of the United Kingdom. However, in 1965 an agreement was reached to merge the three communities under a single set of institutions, and hence the [[Merger Treaty]] was signed in Brussels and came into force on 1 July 1967 creating the [[European Communities]].<ref>[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&doc=473 Merging the executives] ena.lu</ref> [[Jean Rey (politician)|Jean Rey]] [[President of the European Commission|presided over]] the first merged Commission ([[Rey Commission]]).


While the political progress of the Communities was hesitant in the 1960s, this was a fertile period for European legal integration.<ref>Lecourt, Robert (1976). L'Europe des juges. Bruxelles, Bruylant. Stein, Eric (1981). 'Lawyers, Judges and the Making of a Transnational Constitution.' American Journal of International Law 75(1): 1–27. Weiler, Joseph H. H. (1991). 'The Transformation of Europe.' Yale Law Journal 100: 2403–2483.</ref> Many of the foundational legal doctrines of the Court of Justice were first established in landmark decisions during the 1960s and 1970s, above all in the ''[[Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen|Van Gend en Loos]]'' decision of 1963 that declared the "direct effect" of European law, that is to say, its enforceability before national courts by private parties.<ref>ECJ Case 26/62</ref> Other landmark decisions during this period included ''[[Costa v ENEL]]'', which established the supremacy of European law over national law<ref>ECJ Case 6/64</ref> and the [[Commission v Luxembourg & Belgium|"Dairy Products" decision]], which declared that general international law principles of reciprocity and retaliation were prohibited within the European Community.<ref>ECJ Cases 90&91/63, Commission v Luxembourg & Belgium. See e.g. Phelan, William (2016). 'Supremacy, Direct Effect, and Dairy Products in the Early History of European law.' International Journal of Constitutional Law 14: 6–25.</ref> All three of these judgments were made after the appointment of French judge [[Robert Lecourt]] in 1962, and Lecourt appears to have become a dominant influence on the Court of Justice over the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>W. Phelan, Great Judgments of the European Court of Justice: Rethinking the Landmark Decisions of the Foundational Period (Cambridge, 2019)</ref>
While the political progress of the Communities was hesitant in the 1960s, this was a fertile period for European legal integration.<ref>Lecourt, Robert (1976). L'Europe des juges. Bruxelles, Bruylant. Stein, Eric (1981). 'Lawyers, Judges, and the Making of a Transnational Constitution.' American Journal of International Law 75(1): 1–27. Weiler, Joseph H. H. (1991). 'The Transformation of Europe.' Yale Law Journal 100: 2403–2483.</ref> Many of the foundational legal doctrines of the Court of Justice were first established in landmark decisions during the 1960s and 1970s, above all in the ''[[Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen|Van Gend en Loos]]'' decision of 1963 that declared the "direct effect" of European law, that is to say, its enforceability before national courts by private parties.<ref>ECJ Case 26/62</ref> Other landmark decisions during this period included ''[[Costa v ENEL]]'', which established the supremacy of European law over national law<ref>ECJ Case 6/64</ref> and the [[Commission v Luxembourg & Belgium|"Dairy Products" decision]], which declared that general international law principles of reciprocity and retaliation were prohibited within the European Community.<ref>ECJ Cases 90&91/63, Commission v Luxembourg & Belgium. See e.g. Phelan, William (2016). 'Supremacy, Direct Effect, and Dairy Products in the Early History of European law.' International Journal of Constitutional Law 14: 6–25.</ref> All three of these judgments were made after the appointment of French judge [[Robert Lecourt]] in 1962, and Lecourt appears to have become a dominant influence on the Court of Justice over the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>W. Phelan, Great Judgments of the European Court of Justice: Rethinking the Landmark Decisions of the Foundational Period (Cambridge, 2019)</ref>


==1973–1993: Enlargement to Delors==
==1973–1993: Enlargement to Delors==

Revision as of 13:50, 5 July 2020

Part of a series on the
History of the
European Union
Timeline
Organisation
Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters
 (2003–2009)
Common Foreign and Security Policy pillar (1993–2009)
Western European Union (1954–2011)
Western Union (1948–1954)
Treaties
Treaty of Paris 1951
Treaty of Rome 1957
Merger Treaty 1965
Single European Act 1986
Maastricht Treaty 1992
Treaty of Amsterdam 1997
Treaty of Nice 2001
Treaty of Lisbon 2007
Commissions
Hallstein Commission 1958
Rey Commission 1967
Malfatti Commission 1970
Mansholt Commission 1972
Ortoli Commission 1973
Jenkins Commission 1977
Thorn Commission 1981
Delors Commission 1985
Santer Commission 1994
Prodi Commission 1999
Barroso Commission 2004
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Von der Leyen Commission 2019
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The European Union is a geo-political entity covering a large portion of the European continent. It is founded upon numerous treaties and has undergone expansions and secessions that have taken it from 6 member states to 27, a majority of the states in Europe.

Apart from the ideas of

European Atomic Energy Community
(EAEC). The ECSC expired in 2002, while the EAEC maintains a distinct legal identity despite sharing members and institutions.

The

European Community. This in turn led to the creation of the single European currency, the euro (launched 1999). The Maastricht Treaty has been amended by the treaties of Amsterdam (1997), Nice (2001) and Lisbon
(2007).

Ideas of European unity before 1945

Main article:
Ideas of European unity before 1945
Europa regina in Sebastian Münster's "Cosmographia", 1570.

The original development of the European Union was based on a supranational foundation that would "make war unthinkable and materially impossible"[1][2] A peaceful means of some consolidation of European territories used to be provided by

Austro-Hungarian Empire.[4]

In the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1818, Tsar Alexander, as the most advanced internationalist of the day, suggested a kind of permanent European union and even proposed the maintenance of international military forces to provide recognised states with support against changes by violence.[5]

An example of an organisation formed to promote the association of states between the wars to promote the idea of European union is the

Pan-Europa movement
.

1945–1957: From ECSC to the Treaties of Rome

Main article:
History of the European Coal and Steel Community (1945–57)
After two devastating world wars, the political climate favoured an international unity that could preserve peace in Europe effectively. (Hamburg, after a massive Allied bombing in 1943 in the picture)

World War II from 1939 to 1945 saw a human and economic catastrophe that hit Europe hardest. It demonstrated the horrors of war, and also of extremism, through

Great Power status, with the exception of the USSR, which became a superpower after World War II and maintained the status for 45 years. This left two rival ideologically opposed superpowers.[6]

To ensure Germany could never threaten the peace again, its heavy industry was partly dismantled (See:

Ruhr area).[7] (See: Monnet Plan
)

With statements such as

Schuman declaration
).

Robert Schuman proposed the Coal and Steel Community in May 1950.

On the basis of that speech, France, Italy, the Benelux countries (Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg) together with West Germany signed the Treaty of Paris (1951) creating the European Coal and Steel Community the following year; this took over the role of the International Authority for the Ruhr[8] and lifted some restrictions on German industrial productivity. It gave birth to the first institutions, such as the High Authority (now the European Commission) and the Common Assembly (now the European Parliament). The first presidents of those institutions were Jean Monnet and Paul-Henri Spaak respectively.

The formation of the European Coal and Steel Community was advanced by

George C. Marshall. His namesake plan to rebuild Europe in the wake of World War II contributed more than $100 billion in today's dollars to the Europeans, helping to feed Europeans, deliver steel to rebuild industries, provide coal to warm homes, and construct dams to help provide power. In doing so, the Marshall Plan encouraged the integration of European powers into the European Coal and Steel Community, the precursor to present-day European Union, by illustrating the effects of economic integration and the need for coordination. The potency of the Marshall's plan caused German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt to remark that "[the] United States ought not to forget that the emerging European Union is one of its greatest achievements: it would never have happened without the Marshall Plan."[9]

The attempt to turn the

Saar protectorate into a "European territory" was rejected by a referendum in 1955. The Saar was to have been governed by a statute supervised by a European Commissioner reporting to the Council of Ministers of the Western European Union
.

After failed attempts at creating defence (

European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) among the members.[10]

1958–1972: Three communities

Main article:
History of the European Communities (1958–72)
Konrad Adenauer, Walter Hallstein and Antonio Segni, signing the European customs union and Euratom in Rome in 1957

The two new communities were created separately from ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The executives of the new communities were called Commissions, as opposed to the "High Authority". The EEC was headed by

Etienne Hirsch. Euratom would integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union between members.[10][11][12]

Throughout the 1960s tensions began to show with France seeking to limit supranational power and rejecting the membership of the United Kingdom. However, in 1965 an agreement was reached to merge the three communities under a single set of institutions, and hence the Merger Treaty was signed in Brussels and came into force on 1 July 1967 creating the European Communities.[13] Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission (Rey Commission).

While the political progress of the Communities was hesitant in the 1960s, this was a fertile period for European legal integration.[14] Many of the foundational legal doctrines of the Court of Justice were first established in landmark decisions during the 1960s and 1970s, above all in the Van Gend en Loos decision of 1963 that declared the "direct effect" of European law, that is to say, its enforceability before national courts by private parties.[15] Other landmark decisions during this period included Costa v ENEL, which established the supremacy of European law over national law[16] and the "Dairy Products" decision, which declared that general international law principles of reciprocity and retaliation were prohibited within the European Community.[17] All three of these judgments were made after the appointment of French judge Robert Lecourt in 1962, and Lecourt appears to have become a dominant influence on the Court of Justice over the 1960s and 1970s.[18]

1973–1993: Enlargement to Delors

Main article:
History of the European Communities (1973–93)
De Gaulle's
veto delayed the first enlargement.

After much negotiation, and following a change in the French Presidency, Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom (with Gibraltar) eventually joined the European Communities on 1 January 1973. This was the first of several enlargements which became a major policy area of the Union (see: Enlargement of the European Union).[19]

In 1979, the European Parliament held its first direct elections by universal suffrage. 410 members were elected, who then elected the first female President of the European Parliament, Simone Veil.[20]

A further enlargement took place in 1981 with Greece joining on 1 January, six years after applying. In 1982,

Special member state territories and the European Union). Spain and Portugal joined (having applied in 1977) on 1 January 1986 in the third enlargement.[21]

The Iron Curtain's fall enabled the accession of the DDR (Berlin Wall).

Recently appointed Commission President

European flag by the Communities in 1986. In the first major revision of the treaties since the Merger Treaty, leaders signed the Single European Act in February 1986. The text dealt with institutional reform, including extension of community powers – in particular in regarding foreign policy. It was a major component in completing the single market and came into force on 1 July 1987.[22]

Otto von Habsburg, who played a leading role in the collapse of the Iron Curtain and communism.

In 1987

Copenhagen Criteria).[27][28]

With a wave of new enlargements on the way, the Maastricht Treaty was signed on 7 February 1992 which established the European Union when it came into force the following year.

1993–2004: Creation

Main article: History of the European Union (1993–2004)
Interactive SVG map of the evolution of the European Union

On 1 November 1993, under the third

European Community.[29][30] The 1994 European elections were held resulting in the Socialist group maintaining their position as the largest party in Parliament. The Council proposed Jacques Santer as Commission President but he was seen as a second choice candidate, undermining his position. Parliament narrowly approved Santer but his commission gained greater support, being approved by 416 votes to 103. Santer had to use his new powers under Maastricht to flex greater control over his choice of Commissioners. They took office on 23 January 1995.[31]

On 30 March 1994, accession negotiations concluded with

Single European Market. The following year, the Schengen Agreement came into force between seven members, expanding to include nearly all others by the end of 1996. The 1990s also saw the further development of the euro. 1 January 1994 saw the second stage of the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union begin with the establishment of the European Monetary Institute and at the start of 1999 the euro as a currency was launched and the European Central Bank
was established. On 1 January 2002, notes and coins were put into circulation, replacing the old currencies entirely.

Coins and banknotes of the Euro, the single-currency introduced from 1999

During the 1990s, the

High Representative).[32]

However, any success was overshadowed by the budget crisis in March 1999. The Parliament refused to approve the Commission's 1996 community's budget on grounds of financial mismanagement, fraud and nepotism. With Parliament ready to throw them out, the entire Santer Commission resigned.[33][34] The post-Delors mood of euroscepticism became entrenched with the Council and Parliament constantly challenging the Commission's position in coming years.[35]

In the

Nice Treaty was signed on 26 February 2001 and entered into force on 1 February 2003 which made the final preparations before the 2004 enlargement to 10 new members
.

2004–present

Main article:
History of the European Union since 2004
See also:
European migrant crisis, and Brexit
Ex-President Barroso.

On 10–13 June 2004, the 25 member states participated in the largest trans-national election in history (with the second largest democratic electorate in the world). The result of the

European People's Party-European Democrats group. It also saw the lowest voter turnout of 45.5%, the second time it had fallen below 50%.[39] On 22 July 2004, José Manuel Barroso was approved by the new Parliament as the next Commission President. However, his new team of 25 Commissioners faced a tougher road. With Parliament raising objections to a number of his candidates he was forced to withdraw his selection and try once more. The Prodi Commission had to extend their mandate to 22 November after the new line-up of commissioners was finally approved.[40]

A proposed

High Representative. After much debate about what kind of person should be President, the European Council agreed on a low-key personality and chose Herman Van Rompuy while foreign policy-novice Catherine Ashton
became High Representative.

Newest state in yellow.

The 2009 elections again saw a victory for the European People's Party, despite losing the British Conservatives who formed a smaller eurosceptic grouping with other anti-federalist right wing parties. Parliament's presidency was once again divided between the People's Party and the Socialists, with Jerzy Buzek elected as the first President of the European Parliament from an ex-communist country. Barroso was nominated by the Council for a second term and received backing from EPP who had declared him as their candidate before the elections. However, the Socialists and Greens led the opposition against him despite not agreeing on an opposing candidate. Parliament finally approved Barroso II, though once more several months behind schedule.

In 2007, the fifth enlargement completed with the accession of Romania and Bulgaria on 1 January 2007. Also, in 2007 Slovenia adopted the euro,[41] Malta and Cyprus in 2008[42] and Slovakia in 2009. However trouble developed with existing members as the eurozone entered its first recession in 2008.[43] Members cooperated and the ECB intervened to help restore economic growth and the euro was seen as a safe haven, particularly by those outside such as Iceland.[44][45][46]

However, with the risk of a default in

European Monetary Fund or federal treasury.[47][48][49]

The European Union received the 2012 Nobel Peace Prize for having "contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy and human rights in Europe."[50][51] The Nobel Committee stated that "that dreadful suffering in World War II demonstrated the need for a new Europe [...] today war between Germany and France is unthinkable. This shows how, through well-aimed efforts and by building up mutual confidence, historical enemies can become close partners."[52] The Nobel Committee's decision was subject to considerable criticism.[53]

On 1 July 2013, Croatia joined the EU, and on 1 January 2014 the French Indian Ocean territory of Mayotte was added as an outermost region.[54]

On 23 June 2016, the citizens of the United Kingdom voted to withdraw from the European Union in a referendum and subsequently became the first and to date only member to trigger Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU). The vote was in favour of leaving the EU by a margin of 51.9% in favour to 48.1% against.[55] The UK's withdrawal was completed on 31 January 2020.

See also

Template:Wikipedia books

Wider European history between World War II and the fall of Communism in Europe 1945–1992
Wider European history after the creation of the European Union

References

  1. ^ a b "Schuman Project". schuman.info.
  2. ^ a b "Schuman Project". schuman.info.
  3. ^ "Schuman Project". schuman.info.
  4. ^ "The World Factbook". cia.gov.
  5. ^ R. R. Palmer. A History of the Modern World. p. 461.
  6. ^ Europe in ruins in the aftermath of the Second World War ena.lu
  7. ^ *French proposal regarding the detachment of German industrial regions 8 September 1945
    France, Germany and the Struggle for the War-making Natural Resources of the RhinelandLetter from Konrad Adenauer to Robert Schuman (26 July 1949) Warning him of the consequences of the dismantling policy. (requires Flash Player)
    Letter from Ernest Bevin to Robert Schuman (30 October 1949) British and French foreign ministers. Bevin argues that they need to reconsider the Allies' dismantling policy in the occupied zones (requires Flash Player)
  8. ^ "Problem while searching in History". digicoll.library.wisc.edu. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
  9. ^ "Europe: How The Marshall Plan Took Western Europe From Ruins To Union". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
  10. ^ a b A peaceful Europe – the beginnings of cooperation europa.eu
  11. ^ A European Atomic Energy Community ena.lu
  12. ^ A European Customs Union ena.lu
  13. ^ Merging the executives ena.lu
  14. ^ Lecourt, Robert (1976). L'Europe des juges. Bruxelles, Bruylant. Stein, Eric (1981). 'Lawyers, Judges, and the Making of a Transnational Constitution.' American Journal of International Law 75(1): 1–27. Weiler, Joseph H. H. (1991). 'The Transformation of Europe.' Yale Law Journal 100: 2403–2483.
  15. ^ ECJ Case 26/62
  16. ^ ECJ Case 6/64
  17. ^ ECJ Cases 90&91/63, Commission v Luxembourg & Belgium. See e.g. Phelan, William (2016). 'Supremacy, Direct Effect, and Dairy Products in the Early History of European law.' International Journal of Constitutional Law 14: 6–25.
  18. ^ W. Phelan, Great Judgments of the European Court of Justice: Rethinking the Landmark Decisions of the Foundational Period (Cambridge, 2019)
  19. ^ The first enlargement cvce.eu
  20. ^ The new European Parliament cvce.eu
  21. ^ Negotiations for enlargement cvce.eu
  22. ^ Single European Act cvce.eu
  23. ^ Miklós Németh in Interview, Austrian TV - ORF "Report", 25 June 2019
  24. ^ „Der 19. August 1989 war ein Test für Gorbatschows“ (German - August 19, 1989 was a test for Gorbachev), in: FAZ 19 August 2009.
  25. ^ Michael Frank: Paneuropäisches Picknick – Mit dem Picknickkorb in die Freiheit (German: Pan-European picnic - With the picnic basket to freedom), in: Süddeutsche Zeitung 17 May 2010.
  26. ^ Ludwig Greven "Und dann ging das Tor auf", in Die Zeit, 19 August 2014.
  27. ^ The fall of the Berlin Wall ena.lu
  28. ^ Andreas Rödder, Deutschland einig Vaterland – Die Geschichte der Wiedervereinigung (2009).
  29. ^ 1993 europa.eu
  30. ^ Characteristics of the Treaty on European Union cvce.eu
  31. Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l'Europe (CVCE)
    . Retrieved 29 January 2013.
  32. ^ The Treaty of Amsterdam ena.lu
  33. ^ Ringer, Nils F. (February 2003). "The Santer Commission Resignation Crisis" (PDF). University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
  34. ISBN 978-0-7190-5666-6
    .
  35. ^ Topan, Angelina (30 September 2002). "The resignation of the Santer-Commission: the impact of 'trust' and 'reputation'". European Integration online Papers. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
  36. ^ "EU Budget Fraud". politics.co.uk. Archived from the original on 19 June 2006. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
  37. ^ Prodi to Have Wide, New Powers as Head of the European Commission iht.com 16 April 1999
  38. ^ Javier Solana/Spain: Europe's First Foreign Minister? businessweek.com
  39. ^ Vote EU 2004 news.bbc.co.uk
  40. ^ The new commission – some initial thoughts Archived 23 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine bmbrussels.b
  41. British Broadcasting Corporation
    . 16 June 2006. Retrieved 18 January 2009.
  42. euractiv.com. 16 May 2007. Archived from the original
    on 18 October 2007. Retrieved 19 January 2009.
  43. ^ EU data confirms eurozone's first recession Archived 30 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine, EUbusiness.com, 8 January 2009
  44. ^ "European leaders agree crisis rescue at summit". Eubusiness.com. Archived from the original on 13 October 2008. Retrieved 2 January 2009.
  45. ^ Oakley, David and Ralph Atkins (17 September 2009) Eurozone shows its strength in a crisis, Financial Times
  46. ^ Iceland to be fast-tracked into the EU, the Guardian
  47. ^ Willis, Andrew (25 March 2010) Eurozone leaders agree on Franco-German bail-out mechanism, EU Observer
  48. ^ Eurozone overhaul Die Zeit on Presseurop, 12 February 2010
  49. ^ Plans emerge for 'European Monetary Fund' EU Observer
  50. ^ The Nobel Peace Prize 2012, Nobelprize.org, 12 October 2012, retrieved 12 October 2012
  51. ^ "Nobel Committee Awards Peace Prize to E.U.", New York Times, 12 October 2012, retrieved 12 October 2012
  52. ^ The Nobel Peace Prize for 2012, Nobelprize.org, 12 October 2012, retrieved 12 October 2012
  53. ^ Gaspers, Jan (December 2012). "The European Union and the Nobel Peace Prize: A Criteria-Based Assessment" (PDF). Retrieved 19 December 2012.
  54. ^ "EUROPEAN COUNCIL DECISION of 11 July 2012 amending the status of Mayotte with regard to the European Union". europa.eu.
  55. ^ "Labour leadership & Hammond in China – BBC News". Retrieved 23 July 2016.

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of the European Union.

Since the end of World War II, sovereign European countries have entered into treaties and thereby co-operated and harmonised policies (or pooled sovereignty) in an increasing number of areas, in the European integration project or the construction of Europe (French: la construction européenne). The following timeline outlines the legal inception of the European Union (EU)—the principal framework for this unification. The EU inherited many of its present responsibilities from the European Communities (EC), which were founded in the 1950s in the spirit of the Schuman Declaration.

Legend:
  S: signing
  F: entry into force
  T: termination
  E: expiry
    de facto supersession
  Rel. w/ EC/EU framework:
   de facto inside
   outside 		                  European Union (EU) [Cont.]  
European Communities (EC) (Pillar I)
European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom) [Cont.]      
/ / / European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)  
(Distr. of competences)
    European Economic Community (EEC)    
            Schengen Rules European Community (EC)
'TREVI'
Justice and Home Affairs (JHA, pillar II)
  
  / North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) [Cont.]
Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJCC, pillar II
)

Anglo-French alliance 		[Defence arm handed to NATO] European Political Co-operation (EPC)   Common Foreign and Security Policy
(CFSP, pillar III)
Western Union (WU) / Western European Union (WEU) [Tasks defined following the WEU's 1984 reactivation handed to the EU]
     
[Social, cultural tasks handed to CoE] [Cont.]                
      Council of Europe (CoE)
Entente Cordiale
S: 8 April 1904
Dunkirk Treaty[i]
S: 4 March 1947
F: 8 September 1947
E: 8 September 1997
Brussels Treaty[i]
S: 17 March 1948
F: 25 August 1948
T: 30 June 2011
London and Washington treaties[i]
S: 5 May/4 April 1949
F: 3 August/24 August 1949
Paris treaties: ECSC and EDC[ii]
S: 18 April 1951/27 May 1952
F: 23 July 1952/—
E: 23 July 2002/—
Rome treaties: EEC and EAEC
S: 25 March 1957
F: 1 January 1958
WEU-CoE agreement[i]
S: 21 October 1959
F: 1 January 1960
Brussels (Merger) Treaty[iii]
S: 8 April 1965
F: 1 July 1967
Davignon report
S: 27 October 1970
European Council conclusions

S: 2 December 1975
Single European Act (SEA)
S: 17/28 February 1986
F: 1 July 1987
Schengen Treaty and Convention
S: 14 June 1985/19 June 1990
F: 26 March 1995
Maastricht Treaty[iv][v]
S: 7 February 1992
F: 1 November 1993
Amsterdam Treaty
S: 2 October 1997
F: 1 May 1999
Nice Treaty
S: 26 February 2001
F: 1 February 2003
Lisbon Treaty[vi]
S: 13 December 2007
F: 1 December 2009


  1. ^ a b c d e Although not EU treaties per se, these treaties affected the development of the EU defence arm, a main part of the CFSP. The Franco-British alliance established by the Dunkirk Treaty was de facto superseded by WU. The CFSP pillar was bolstered by some of the security structures that had been established within the remit of the 1955 Modified Brussels Treaty (MBT). The Brussels Treaty was terminated in 2011, consequently dissolving the WEU, as the mutual defence clause that the Lisbon Treaty provided for EU was considered to render the WEU superfluous. The EU thus de facto superseded the WEU.
  2. European Political Community (EPC) were shelved following the French failure to ratify the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community
    (EDC). The EPC would have combined the ECSC and the EDC.
  3. ^ The European Communities obtained common institutions and a shared legal personality (i.e. ability to e.g. sign treaties in their own right).
  4. ^ The treaties of Maastricht and Rome form the EU's legal basis, and are also referred to as the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), respectively. They are amended by secondary treaties.
  5. ^ Between the EU's founding in 1993 and consolidation in 2009, the union consisted of three pillars, the first of which were the European Communities. The other two pillars consisted of additional areas of cooperation that had been added to the EU's remit.
  6. distribution of competencies between EU institutions and member states. This distribution, as well as treaty provisions for policy areas in which unanimity is required and qualified majority voting is possible, reflects the depth of EU integration as well as the EU's partly supranational and partly intergovernmental
    nature.
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