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Drama is the specific
In English (as was the analogous case in as many other European languages), the word "
The enactment of drama in
Drama is often combined with music and dance: the drama in opera is generally sung throughout; musicals generally include both spoken dialogue and songs; and some forms of drama have incidental music or musical accompaniment underscoring the dialogue (melodrama and Japanese Nō, for example).[8] Closet drama describes a form that is intended to be read, rather than performed.[9] In improvisation, the drama does not pre-exist the moment of performance; performers devise a dramatic script spontaneously before an audience.[10]
History of Western drama
Classical Greek drama
Western drama originates in classical Greece.[11] The theatrical culture of the city-state of Athens produced three genres of drama: tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play. Their origins remain obscure, though by the 5th century BCE they were institutionalised in competitions held as part of festivities celebrating the god Dionysus.[12] Historians know the names of many ancient Greek dramatists, not least Thespis, who is credited with the innovation of an actor ("hypokrites") who speaks (rather than sings) and impersonates a character (rather than speaking in his own person), while interacting with the chorus and its leader ("coryphaeus"), who were a traditional part of the performance of non-dramatic poetry (dithyrambic, lyric and epic).[13]
Only a small fraction of the work of five dramatists, however, has survived to this day: we have a small number of complete texts by the tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, and the comic writers Aristophanes and, from the late 4th century, Menander.[14] Aeschylus' historical tragedy The Persians is the oldest surviving drama, although when it won first prize at the City Dionysia competition in 472 BCE, he had been writing plays for more than 25 years.[15] The competition ("agon") for tragedies may have begun as early as 534 BCE; official records ("didaskaliai") begin from 501 BCE, when the satyr play was introduced.[16] Tragic dramatists were required to present a tetralogy of plays (though the individual works were not necessarily connected by story or theme), which usually consisted of three tragedies and one satyr play (though exceptions were made, as with Euripides' Alcestis in 438 BCE). Comedy was officially recognized with a prize in the competition from 487 to 486 BCE.
Five comic dramatists competed at the City Dionysia (though during the Peloponnesian War this may have been reduced to three), each offering a single comedy.[17] Ancient Greek comedy is traditionally divided between "old comedy" (5th century BCE), "middle comedy" (4th century BCE) and "new comedy" (late 4th century to 2nd BCE).[18]
Classical Roman drama
Following the expansion of the
While Greek drama continued to be performed throughout the Roman period, the year 240 BCE marks the beginning of regular
By the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, drama was firmly established in Rome and a guild of writers (collegium poetarum) had been formed.[24] The Roman comedies that have survived are all fabula palliata (comedies based on Greek subjects) and come from two dramatists: Titus Maccius Plautus (Plautus) and Publius Terentius Afer (Terence).[25] In re-working the Greek originals, the Roman comic dramatists abolished the role of the chorus in dividing the drama into episodes and introduced musical accompaniment to its dialogue (between one-third of the dialogue in the comedies of Plautus and two-thirds in those of Terence).[26] The action of all scenes is set in the exterior location of a street and its complications often follow from eavesdropping.[26]
Plautus, the more popular of the two, wrote between 205 and 184 BCE and twenty of his comedies survive, of which his
From the time of the empire, the work of two tragedians survives—one is an unknown author, while the other is the
Medieval
Beginning in the early Middle Ages, churches staged dramatised versions of biblical events, known as liturgical dramas, to enliven annual celebrations.[30] The earliest example is the Easter trope Whom do you Seek? (Quem-Quaeritis) (c. 925).[31] Two groups would sing responsively in Latin, though no impersonation of characters was involved. By the 11th century, it had spread through Europe to Russia, Scandinavia, and Italy; only Muslim-occupied Spain was excluded.
In the 10th century,
One of the most famous of the early secular plays is the courtly pastoral Robin and Marion, written in the 13th century in French by Adam de la Halle.[33] The Interlude of the Student and the Girl (c. 1300), one of the earliest known in English, seems to be the closest in tone and form to the contemporaneous French farces, such as The Boy and the Blind Man.[34]
A large number of plays survive from
Elizabethan and Jacobean
One of the great flowerings of drama in
English Restoration comedy
In England, the
The unsentimental or "hard" comedies of
During the second wave of Restoration comedy in the 1690s, the "softer" comedies of
Modern and postmodern
The pivotal and innovative contributions of the
Other important playwrights of the modern era include Antonin Artaud, August Strindberg, Anton Chekhov, Frank Wedekind, Maurice Maeterlinck, Federico García Lorca, Eugene O'Neill, Luigi Pirandello, George Bernard Shaw, Ernst Toller, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Arthur Miller, Tennessee Williams, Jean Genet, Eugène Ionesco, Samuel Beckett, Harold Pinter, Friedrich Dürrenmatt, Dario Fo, Heiner Müller, and Caryl Churchill.
Asian drama
India
The earliest form of
Sanskrit theatre
The earliest-surviving fragments of
The major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is
Its drama is regarded as the highest achievement of
Modern Indian drama
Rabindranath Tagore, was a pioneering modern playwright who wrote plays noted for their exploration and questioning of nationalism, identity, spiritualism and material greed.[53] His plays are written in Bengali and include Chitra (Chitrangada, 1892), The King of the Dark Chamber (Raja, 1910), The Post Office (Dakghar, 1913), and Red Oleander (Raktakarabi, 1924).[53] Girish Karnad is a noted playwright, who has written a number of plays that use history and mythology, to critique and problematize ideas and ideals that are of contemporary relevance. Karnad's numerous plays such as Tughlaq, Hayavadana, Taledanda and Naga-Mandala are significant contributions to Indian drama. Vijay Tendulkar and Mahesh Dattani are amongst the major Indian playwrights of the 20th century. Mohan Rakesh in Hindi and Danish Iqbal in Urdu are considered architects of new age Drama. Mohan Rakesh's Aadhe Adhoore and Danish Iqbal's 'Dara Shikoh' are considered modern classics.
Modern Urdu drama of India and Pakistan
This section possibly contains original research. (December 2011) |
Urdu Drama evolved from the prevailing dramatic traditions of North India shaping Rahas or Raas as practiced by exponents like
and later this tradition took the shape of Parsi Theatre. Agha Hashr Kashmiri is the culmination of this tradition.In some way or other, Urdu theatre tradition has greatly influenced modern
Drama as a theme is made up of several elements. It focuses on life and different aspects of it. The thing to be noticed here is that drama on stage imitates drama in life. It has been said that, there has always been a mutual relationship between theatre and real life. Great historical personalities like Shakespeare have influenced Modern Urdu tradition to a large extent when Indian, Iranian, Turkish stories and folk was adapted for stage with heavy doses of Urdu poetry. In modern times writers like Imtiaz Ali Taj, Rafi Peer, Krishan Chander, Manto, Upender Nath Ashk, Ghulam Rabbani, Prof. Mujeeb and many others shaped this tradition.
While Prof Hasan, Ghulam Jeelani, J.N,Kaushal, Shameem Hanfi, Jameel Shaidayi, etc. belong to the old generation, contemporary writers like Danish Iqbal, Sayeed Alam, Shahid Anwar, Iqbal Niyazi, and Anwar are a few
Sayeed Alam is known for his wit and humour and more particularly for Plays like 'Ghalib in New Delhi', 'Big B' and many other gems which are regularly staged for massive turn out of theatre lovers. Maulana Azad is his magnum opus both for its content and style.
Danish Iqbal's play about '
China
Chinese theatre has a long and complex history. Today it is often called
.Japan
Japanese Nō drama is a serious dramatic form that combines drama, music, and dance into a complete aesthetic performance experience. It developed in the 14th and 15th centuries and has its own musical instruments and performance techniques, which were often handed down from father to son. The performers were generally male (for both male and female roles), although female amateurs also perform Nō dramas. Nō drama was supported by the government, and particularly the military, with many military commanders having their own troupes and sometimes performing themselves. It is still performed in Japan today.[54]
Kyōgen is the comic counterpart to Nō drama. It concentrates more on dialogue and less on music, although Nō instrumentalists sometimes appear also in Kyōgen. Kabuki drama, developed from the 17th century, is another comic form, which includes dance.
Forms of drama
Opera
This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2016) |
Chinese opera has seen a more conservative development over a somewhat longer period of time.
Pantomime
These stories follow in the tradition of
Mime
Jacques Copeau, strongly influenced by Commedia dell'arte and Japanese Noh theatre, used masks in the training of his actors. Étienne Decroux, a pupil of his, was highly influenced by this and started exploring and developing the possibilities of mime and refined corporeal mime into a highly sculptural form, taking it outside of the realms of naturalism. Jacques Lecoq contributed significantly to the development of mime and physical theatre with his training methods.[57]
Creative drama
Creative drama includes dramatic activities and games used primarily in educational settings with children. Its roots in the United States began in the early 1900s. Winifred Ward is considered to be the founder of creative drama in education, establishing the first academic use of drama in Evanston, Illinois.[58]
See also
- Antitheatricality
- Applied Drama
- Augustan drama
- Christian drama
- Closet drama
- Comedy-drama
- Costume drama
- Crime drama
- Domestic drama
- Drama school
- Dramatic structure
- Dramatic theory
- Dramaturgy
- Entertainment
- Flash drama
- Folk play
- Heroic drama
- History of theatre
- Hyperdrama
- Legal drama
- Medical drama
- Melodrama
- Monodrama
- Mystery play
- One act play
- Political drama
- Soap opera
- Theatre awards
- Two-hander
- Verse drama and dramatic verse
- Well-made play
- Yakshagana
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Notes
- ^ Elam (1980, 98).
- '" (1949, 8).
- ^ Wickham (1959, 32—41; 1969, 133; 1981, 68—69). The sense of the creator of plays as a "maker" rather than a "writer" is preserved in the word "playwright." The Theatre, one of the first purpose-built playhouses in London, was "a self-conscious latinism to describe one particular playhouse" rather than a term for the buildings in general (1967, 133). The word 'dramatist' "was at that time still unknown in the English language" (1981, 68).
- ^ Banham (1998, 894–900).
- ^ Pfister (1977, 11).
- ^ Fergusson (1949, 2–3).
- ^ Burt (2008).
- ^ See the entries for "opera", "musical theatre, American", "melodrama" and "Nō" in Banham (1998).
- Byron, for example, is a good example of a "dramatic poem." See the entry on "Byron (George George)" in Banham (1998).
- ^ Some forms of improvisation, notably the Commedia dell'arte, improvise on the basis of 'lazzi' or rough outlines of scenic action (see Gordon (1983) and Duchartre (1929)). All forms of improvisation take their cue from their immediate response to one another, their characters' situations (which are sometimes established in advance), and, often, their interaction with the audience. The classic formulations of improvisation in the theatre originated with Joan Littlewood and Keith Johnstone in the UK and Viola Spolin in the USA; see Johnstone (1981) and Spolin (1963).
- ^ Brown (1998, 441), Cartledge (1997, 3–5), Goldhill (1997, 54), and Ley (2007, 206). Taxidou notes that "most scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct" (2004, 104). Brown writes that ancient Greek drama "was essentially the creation of classical Athens: all the dramatists who were later regarded as classics were active at Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE (the time of the Athenian democracy), and all the surviving plays date from this period" (1998, 441). "The dominant culture of Athens in the fifth century", Goldhill writes, "can be said to have invented theatre" (1997, 54).
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 13–15) and Banham (1998, 441–447).
- ^ Banham (1998, 441–444). For more information on these ancient Greek dramatists, see the articles categorised under "Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights" in Wikipedia.
- ^ The theory that Prometheus Bound was not written by Aeschylus would bring this number to six dramatists whose work survives.
- ^ Banham (1998, 8) and Brockett and Hildy (2003, 15–16).
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 13, 15) and Banham (1998, 442).
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 18) and Banham (1998, 444–445).
- ^ Banham (1998, 444–445).
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 43).
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 36, 47).
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 43). For more information on the ancient Roman dramatists, see the articles categorised under "Ancient Roman dramatists and playwrights" in Wikipedia.
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 46–47).
- ^ a b c Brockett and Hildy (2003, 47).
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 47–48).
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 48–49).
- ^ a b c Brockett and Hildy (2003, 49).
- ^ a b Brockett and Hildy (2003, 48).
- ^ a b Brockett and Hildy (2003, 50).
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 49–50).
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 76, 78). Many churches would have only performed one or two liturgical dramas per year and a larger number never performed any at all.
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 76).
- ^ a b c Brockett and Hildy (2003, 77).
- ^ Wickham (1981, 191; 1987, 141).
- Gammer Gurton's Needle and Ralph Roister Doister is mistaken, ignoring as it does a rich tradition of medieval comic drama; see Wickham (1981, 178).
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 86)
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 97).
- ^ Spivack (1958, 251-303), Bevington (1962, 58-61, 81-82, 87, 183), and Weimann (1978, 155).
- ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 101-103).
- ^ The Provoked Wife is something of a Restoration problem play in its attention to the subordinate legal position of married women and the complexities of "divorce" and separation, issues that had been highlighted in the mid-1690s by some notorious cases before the House of Lords.
- demographic change, the Glorious Revolution of 1688, William's and Mary's dislike of the theatre, and the lawsuits brought against playwrights by the Society for the Reformation of Manners (founded in 1692). When Jeremy Collier attacked Congreve and Vanbrugh in his Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stagein 1698, he was confirming a shift in audience taste that had already taken place.
- ^ Williams (1993, 25–26) and Moi (2006, 17). Moi writes that "Ibsen is the most important playwright writing after Shakespeare. He is the founder of modern theater. His plays are world classics, staged on every continent, and studied in classrooms everywhere. In any given year, there are hundreds of Ibsen productions in the world." Ibsenites include George Bernard Shaw and Arthur Miller; Brechtians include Dario Fo, Joan Littlewood, W. H. Auden Peter Weiss, Heiner Müller, Peter Hacks, Tony Kushner, Caryl Churchill, John Arden, Howard Brenton, Edward Bond, and David Hare.
- ^ Moi (2006, 1, 23–26). Taxidou writes: "It is probably historically more accurate, although methodologically less satisfactory, to read the Naturalist movement in the theatre in conjunction with the more anti-illusionist aesthetics of the theatres of the same period. These interlock and overlap in all sorts of complicated ways, even when they are vehemently denouncing each other (perhaps particularly when) in the favoured mode of the time, the manifesto" (2007, 58).
- ^ Williams (1966) and Wright (1989).
- ^ Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 12).
- ^ Brandon (1997, 70) and Richmond (1998, 516).
- ^ Brandon (1997, 72) and Richmond (1998, 516).
- ^ Brandon (1997, 72), Richmond (1998, 516), and Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 12).
- ^ Richmond (1998, 516) and Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 13).
- ^ Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (1998, 516–517).
- ^ a b Richmond (1998, 516).
- ^ a b c Richmond (1998, 517).
- ^ a b Brandon (1981, xvii).
- ^ a b Banham (1998, 1051).
- ^ "Background to Noh-Kyogen". Archived from the original on 15 July 2005. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
- ^ Gutzwiller (2007).
- ^ Rémy (1954).
- ^ Callery (2001).
- ^ Ehrlich (1974, 75–80).
Sources
- Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43437-8.
- Baumer, Rachel Van M., and James R. Brandon, eds. 1981. Sanskrit Theatre in Performance. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1993. ISBN 978-81-208-0772-3.
- Bhatta, S. Krishna. 1987. Indian English Drama: A Critical Study. New Delhi: Sterling.
- Brandon, James R. 1981. Introduction. In Baumer and Brandon (1981, xvii–xx).
- Brandon, James R., ed. 1997. The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre.' 2nd, rev. ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-58822-5.
- Brockett, Oscar G. and Franklin J. Hildy. 2003. History of the Theatre. Ninth edition, International edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 0-205-41050-2.
- Brown, Andrew. 1998. "Ancient Greece." In The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Ed. Martin Banham. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. 441–447. ISBN 0-521-43437-8.
- Burt, Daniel S. 2008.The Drama 100: A Ranking of the Greatest Plays of All Time. Facts on File ser. New York: Facts on File/Infobase. ISBN 978-0-8160-6073-3.
- Callery, Dympha. 2001. Through the Body: A Practical Guide to Physical Theatre. London: Nick Hern. ISBN 1-854-59630-6.
- Carlson, Marvin. 1993. Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present. Expanded ed. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8154-3.
- Cartledge, Paul. 1997. "'Deep Plays': Theatre as Process in Greek Civic Life." In Easterling (1997c, 3–35).
- Chakraborty, Kaustav, ed. 2011. Indian English Drama. New Delhi: PHI Learning.
- Deshpande, G. P., ed. 2000. Modern Indian Drama: An Anthology. New Delhi: Sahitya Akedemi.
- Duchartre, Pierre Louis. 1929. The Italian Comedy. Unabridged republication. New York: Dover, 1966. ISBN 0-486-21679-9.
- Dukore, Bernard F., ed. 1974. Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to . Florence, Kentucky: Heinle & Heinle. ISBN 0-03-091152-4.
- Durant, Will & Ariel Durant. 1963 The Story of Civilization, Volume II: The Life of Greece. 11 vols. New York: Simon & Schuster.
- Easterling, P. E. 1997a. "A Show for Dionysus." In Easterling (1997c, 36–53).
- Easterling, P. E. 1997b. "Form and Performance." In Easterling (1997c, 151–177).
- Easterling, P. E., ed. 1997c. The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy. Cambridge Companions to Literature ser. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-42351-1.
- Ehrlich, Harriet W. 1974. "[Creative Dramatics as a Classroom Teaching Technique." Elementary English 51:1 (January):75–80.
- Elam, Keir. 1980. The ISBN 0-416-72060-9.
- ISBN 0-691-01288-1.
- Goldhill, Simon. 1997. "The Audience of Athenian Tragedy." In Easterling (1997c, 54–68).
- Gordon, Mel. 1983. ISBN 0-933826-69-9.
- Gutzwiller, Kathryn. 2007. A Guide to Hellenistic Literature. London: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-23322-9.
- Harsh, Philip Whaley. 1944. A Handbook of Classical Drama. Stanford: Stanford UP; Oxford: Oxford UP.
- ISBN 0-7136-8701-0.
- Ley, Graham. 2006. A Short Introduction to the Ancient Greek Theater. Rev. ed. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P. ISBN 0-226-47761-4.
- O'Brien, Nick. 2010. Stanislavski In Practise. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415568432.
- O'Brien, Nick. 2007. The Theatricality of Greek Tragedy: Playing Space and Chorus. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P. ISBN 0-226-47757-6.
- Pandey, Sudhakar, and Freya Taraporewala, eds. 1999. Studies in Contemporary India. New Delhi: Prestige.
- Pfister, Manfred. 1977. The Theory and Analysis of Drama. Trans. John Halliday. European Studies in English Literature Ser. Cambridige: Cambridge University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-521-42383-X.
- Rémy, Tristan. 1954. Jean-Gaspard Deburau. Paris: L’Arche.
- ISBN 0-415-11894-8.
- Richmond, Farley. 1998. "India." In Banham (1998, 516–525).
- Richmond, Farley P., Darius L. Swann, and Phillip B. Zarrilli, eds. 1993. Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance. U of Hawaii P. ISBN 978-0-8248-1322-2.
- ISBN 0-8101-4008-X.
- Taxidou, Olga. 2004. Tragedy, Modernity and Mourning. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP. ISBN 0-7486-1987-9.
- Weimann, Robert. 1978. Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater: Studies in the Social Dimension of Dramatic Form and Function. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3506-2.
- Weimann, Robert. 2000. Author's Pen and Actor's Voice: Playing and Writing in Shakespeare's Theatre. Ed. Helen Higbee and William West. Cambridge Studies in Renaissance Literature and Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78735-1.