Kabol, Parthia and India as well as far off as Rome
in the west.
But these important historical events are viewed through a fog of misconceptions that scholars are only beginning to clear up.
One of these relates to the true identity of the
Paradas
. This new view is based on readings of ancient inscriptions as well as literary evidence from scholars in the region and further afar. It suggests that India's modern population is descended from a far greater range of Central Asian peoples than previously thought.
Movements among Central Asian tribes
In the second century BCE, a fresh
Kabol, Parthia and India in the east. Recorded in the annals of the Handynasty and other Chinese
records, this great tribal movement began after the Yue-chi Chinese tribe fled westwards after their defeat by the neighbouring Hiung-nu, creating a domino effect as the Yue-chi displaced other central Asian tribes in their path.
According to these ancient sources Mao-tun of the Hsiung-nu tribe of
Takla Makan
, entered the lands of the Haumavarka Sakas of Issyk-kul Lake through the passes of Tien-shan. Unable to withstand the assault, the Haumavarka Sakas allowed the Yue-chi to settle in their lands. In the years to come, the Haumavarka Sakas (Sakas of Wu-sun?) sought the help of the Hsiung-nu people and evicted the Yue-chi.
Even so, the initial clash with the invading Yue-chi caused a large group of the Haumavarka Shakas to leave their ancestral home. These Sakas journeyed through
Jaxartes, also overunning the Greek kingdom of Bactria, occupying most of its western parts.[2]. Others suggest Tukhara (India and Central Asia, 1955, p 125, Dr P. C. Bagch). Dr D. C. Sircar reconciles the difference by suggesting that Ta-hia referred to Tukhara and the eastern parts of Bactria.[3]
.
After being defeated and evicted by the joint forces of the Wu-sun and Hsiung-nu people, the Ta Yue-chis also moved southwards, overrunning in their path the
Parama-Kambojas, Lohas and other allied Scythian clans living in the Transoxian
regions as far Fargana. Many fled in a southwesterly direction and joined the Haumavarka Sakas in Bactria. The Yue-chi followed behind. Once again under extreme pressure, the Sakas and other allied Scythian groups including the Kambojas were forced to leave Bactria.
They first tried to enter India via the
Parama-Kambojas), Rishikas and other allied tribes from Transoxiana that were also displaced by the Yue-chi. [4][5]
.
Scythians and Sakas in classical sources
Modern historical accounts of the Indo-Scythian wars often assume that the
Scythian protagonists were a single tribe called the Saka (Sakai or Sakas). But earlier Greek and Latin
texts suggest that the term Scythians referred to a much more widespread grouping of Central Asian peoples.
To Herodotus (484-425 BCE), the Sakai were the 'Amurgioi Skuthai' (i.e. Scythians from Ammyurgia).[6]Strabo (Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo, 63 BCE-c24 AD) suggests that the term Skuthais (Scythians) referred to the Sakai and several other tribes.[7]Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' , c92-175 AD), refers to the Sakai as Skuthon (a Scythian people) or the Skuthai (the Scythians) who inhabit Asia.[8]
It is clear that the Greek and Latin scholars cited here believed, all Sakai were Scythians, but not all Scythians were Sakai.[9] It seems likely that modern confusion about the identity of the Scythians is partly due to the Persians. According to Herodotus, the Persians called all Scythians by the name Sakas.[10]Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus, 23–79 AD) provides a more detailed explanation, stating that the Persians gave the name Sakai to the Scythian tribes: "nearest to them".[11] This likely explains why the Scythians began to be called Sakai.
Classical descriptions of the Scythian regions
Another clue to the true identity of the Scythians is the widespread area in which classical scholars thought they lived. The ancient
Hindukush/Karakoram and west of China extending as far as Siberia. This suggests Scythia was a generic term that was loosely applied to a vast area of Central Asia spanning numerous groups and diverse ethnicities.Approximate extent of Scythia and Sarmatia
in the 1st century BC.
Diodorus (Diodorus Siculus, c90–30 BCE) said that Mt Hemodos was the dividing line between Scythia and India,[13] ancient Greek sources used a variety of names for this mountain, including Himaos, Imaos and Paropamisos but generally place it in the Himalayas.[14]
Solinus and Pliny report that the Ganges was one of the greatest rivers of India and has its source in the Scythian mountains[16]
.
When ancient texts refer to the Sakai living in the Mt. Hemodos area or the
Pali texts, the Himalayas spanned the eastern and western oceans and so included the Hindukush and Karakoram ranges.[18]
Ptolemy meanwhile says that the Scythian tribes living in the Hindukush ranges were only at the southern fringe of the Scythian world. By this definition, the
Zeravshan
valleys were also Scythians.
With Scythia covering such a wide area, it is no wonder classical scholars like
of Central Asia from the Caucasus in the northwest, to Mongolia in the northeast.
The Sakas had at least three major settlements, Saka Haumavarka, Saka Tigrakhauda and Saka Taradarya, according to inscriptions left by King
Perspolis. [19] However, scholars think these three settlements may be merely remnants of a much greater civilization left by the waves of Scythian migrations back to the middle of the 8th century BCE.[20]
The Darian inscriptions say that the Sakas Haumavarka lived 'beyond
There are also references to the Saka Haumavarka in ancient Indian texts. It seems likely that it was these Sakas Haumavarka and other allied tribes such as the Lohas, Parama Kambojas, Rishikas, etc that lived in, and north of the
According to scholars, term Kamboja may be explained as Kam+boja. Boja is the Iranian equivalent of the SanskritBhoja which means Lord or King or Master [26]. Thus, Kambojas may be explained as Lords or Masters or Rulers of Kam country.
The root Kam implying place or region is reflected in the Kama
Steppes. Kambah is also said to be name of an ancient town some destinations north-west of Samarkhand in Uzbekistan[27]
.
The
Jaxartes and was referred to as Komdei by Ptolemy. Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus (325 AD‑330 AD) labelled the mountainous region of Suguda as Komedas [28]
.
These names seem to point towards 'Komdesh' (Kambojdesh ?) which was the original home of the Kambojas [29]. Ptolemy has also stated that there is a tribe variously called Komroi, Komedei or Komoi which occupies the plateaus of Bactria, Suguda and Sakai countries [30].
Al-Maqidisi in his book Al-Muqhni calls the people of this territory Kumiji a name that apparently points to the
Puranic texts [36]. Komdei apparently refers to the region which has been called Parama Kamboja in Mahabharata [37]
. This was the region where the Rishikas, Parama Kambojas, Lohas and other allied people dwelt.
Needless to say that all these people including the Parama Kambojas were Scythians by culture for obvious reasons. Writing on the Rishikas, Dr V. S. Aggarwala observes: “The name Rishika occurs in Mahabharata as a part of 'Shakadvipa'. Arjuna had conquered Rishikas across the Vakshu (Oxus) which flowed through the Shaka country.” As the Parama Kambojas, Lohas and the Rishikas were all neighborly tribes and were allied in their fight against Arjuna [38], this strongly suggests that the Transoxian Lohas and Parama Kambojas were also located in Shakadvipa or Scythia.
Dr Bailey lists several breeds of Kamboja horses and states that their haya- and javana- breeds ( 'swift horse') refer to the famous horses of the
), this Indian reference seems to extend the Kamboja i.e the Parama Kamboja domain almost as far as to Fargana.
Thus the foregoing discussion sufficiently proves that the territory of the Parama Kambojas lay in a region beyond Imaos or
Hindukush, the region that ancient Sanskrit texts such as Mahabharata labelled Shakadvipa and classical writers Strabo and Diodorus define as part of Scythia (see above). This allows the conclusion that the Parama Kambojas, the Rishikas and Lohas were Scythians[41]
.
“It seems from some inscriptions that the Kambojas were a royal clan of the Sakas better known under the Greek name of Scyths” [42].
references seem to closely connect the Kambojas and the Shakas together.
Puranic references
Paradas Ayudhajivin Kshatriyas from Uttarapatha, popularly known as "five hordes" (ganah pāñca) [51]
.
Maurya king Brihadratha (187-180 BCE)) and states the Shakas, Kambojas, Khasas, etc together as a powerful military allies of king Kali. The Purana further states that these Barbarianstake the orders from their women[52]
.
The Bhuvanakosha section of
Kekayas
etc and place then all in the Udychya or northwest division.
Mahabharata, too similarly groups the Shakas with the Kambojas and Yavanas and states that they were originally noble Kshatriyas but got degraded to to vrishala status on account of their non-obersvance of the sacred Brahmanical codes[54].
Atri-Smriti reference
In his Book of Law (Atri-Smriti or Atri-Samhita), RsiAtri regards the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Khasas, Parasikas, Natas, Svapakas etc all as Mlechchas and forbids receiving any gifts from or eating the food of or having any kinds of contacts or connections with these people [55].
Tusharas, Parasikas and had destroyed them completely[57]
.
The Vartika of the
Ashtadhyayi informs us that the kings of the Shakas and the Yavanas, like those of the Kambojas may similarly be addressed by their respective tribal names.[58]
There are numerous more similar references in ancient
northwest
division of ancient India.
Strabo’s evidence
Scythian horseman from Central Asia, c. 300 BC.
According to
Kafirstan and Wakhan which are said to have formed eastern parts of Bactria[69][70][71][72] According to other scholars, it were the Saka hordes alone who had put an end to the Greek kingdom of Bactria [73]
.
Sai-Wang Scythian hordes in Chi-pin or Ki-pin
A section of the
Parama Kambojas living in Shakadvipa or Scythian land [82]
.
Mixed hordes in Drangian/Zrangiana
Seistan
.
Scholars hold that Sakistan or Seistan of Drangiana was not only the habitat of the Saka alone but it also contained population of the
Mathura Lion Capital Inscriptions, seems to have included the entire region comprising Kamboja, Naulibi, Nagar and Taxila also [91]
.
The
Mathura Lion Capital Inscriptions exhibit a mixture of Saka and Persian nomenclature [93]
.
Dr Thomas further notes: " It would seem probable that the tribes from eastern Iran who invaded India included diverse elements mingled indistinguishably together, so that, it is not possible to assert that one dynasty was Parthian while another was Saka etc [94].
"The nomenclature of the early Sakas in India shows an admixture of
Even the northern Kshatrapas are stated to be of mixed Saka/Persian ethnicities.
Numerous scholars believe that during centuries immediately preceding
Sakas and Pahlavas; and the Kambojas, Sakas, and Pahlavas etc.... such that their cultures and social customs had become almost identical [96][97][98]. The culture of Kambojas was modified as a result of their contacts, first with the Yavanas and later, it went further modification as a result of their contacts with the Sakas and Pahlavas etc [99]. This extensive social and cultural admixture due to time and space proximity had led to adoption of similar customs, dress mode, language and social manners among the various frontier peoples of north-west. While living and ruling over middle and lower Indus valley--Drangiana and Archosia (Kandhahar region) -- the Sakas, Pahlavas and Kambojas were closely associated and no wonder it is sometimes impossible to distinguish as to which ruler belongs to which clan[100]Cf: "Towards the end of second c BCE, Arachosia and Drangiana were occupied by Scythian tribes who gave their name to latter region (Sakastana - Seistan). The Parthian-Saka-Yavana-Indian-Kushana history of south eastern parts of this former Achaemenid Empire is one of the most disputed subjects among the scholars of ancient history and have to be put to one side"[101]
.
In view of the foregoing discussion, it is thus quite safe to conclude that the Drangiana country and its surrounding area commonly called Sakasthana had become common habitat for the migrants from Saka, Pahlava, Kamboja and some other clans etc[102].
Establishment of Mlechcha Kingdoms in Northern India
that migrated to Drangiana and surrounding regions, later spread further into north and south-west India via the lower Indus valley. Their migration spread into Sovira, Gujarat, Rajasthan and northern India, including kingdoms in the Indian mainland.
There are important references to the warring Mleccha
Indologists like Dr H. C. Raychadhury, Dr B. C. Law, Dr Satya Shrava and others see in these verses the clear glimpses of the struggles of the Hindus with the mixed invading hordes of the barbaric Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas etc from north-west.[104] The time frame for these struggles is second century BCE downwards. Dr Raychadhury fixes the date of the present version of the Valmiki Ramayana around/after second century CE.[105]
and further areas of eastern, central and southern India.
Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, etc shall rule the earth (i.e India) un-rightously in Kaliyuga..." [106][107]
.
According to scholars like Edward Washburn Hopkins, H. C. Ray Chaudhury etc, this is too clear a statement to be ignored or explained away[108]. In fact, when this statement was written, the people mentioned above had already ruled India. If this were the only place where the names occured, it might be regarded as a part of an interpolation in mass. But the people described here as foreign invaders are all mentioned repeatedly as barbarians and fierce warriors from the west. The Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas are portrayed as famous fighters [109] wearing especially fine metal armors, expert cavalrymen [110] and their overthrow is alluded to [111]. So also the Shanti Parva of Mahabharata [112] stigmatises the Yavanas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Kiratas and Barbaras as the sinners (un-rightous people) who are said to be wandering on this earth from the time of Treta age having customs similar to those of chandalas and wild animals [113].
That the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas etc indeed became rulers and masters of the earth (Aryan India) in Kaliyuga (post Mauryan era) is also attested from the Kalki Purana where a short dialogue between the Dharma and the Kalki [115][116], woefully deplores the forced occupation of the earth (Indian mainland) by the unrighteous rulers of the Kambojas, Sakas, Savaras, Mlecchas, Barbaras etc who are blamed to have spread adharma and chaos all around [117].
Dr Jayaswal writes: “Mathura was under outlandish people like the Yavanas and Kambojas... who had a special mode of fighting”[126].
Dr Buddha Prakash observes: "Along with the Sakas, the Kambojas had also entered Indian mainland and spread into whole of North India, especially in Panjab and Uttar Pradesh.
Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions of SakaSatrap (Kshatrapa) Rajuvula found in Mathura "[127]
.
Prof Shashi Asthana comments: "Epic Mahabharata refers to the siege of Mathura by the Yavanas and Kambojas"[128][129].
According to Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona: "Mahabharata reference mentions the Yavanas-Kambojas as settled in the outlying parts of Mathura city"[130][131].
As noted below, there are numerous ancient Sanskrit references which profusely affirm that the Kambojas had indeed been in occupation of territories in south-western and southern India, in the post-Christian times.
Jyotirvidhbhrana, a
Maitraka dynasty
of Gujerat, had obtained placements in key positions. This Jyotirvidhbhrana reference definitely locates the Kambojas in south-western India i.e. near Lata, Saurashtra and western Malwa somewhere.
Varaha Mihira (6th century CE) specifically places the Kambojas with the Pahlavas in the south-west division (nairrtyam dizi = southwest direction), Sind, Saurashtra/Kathiawar, contiguous to Malwa and Dravida countries [142][143][144][145][146]
.
Similarily, in his list of countries,
Alberuni (973 AD --1048 AD) also assigns the Kamboja kingdom in the south-west (Nairita) quadrant of India [147]
.
Arthashastra of Barhaspatya[148] refers to the Kamboja as a great country (Mahavishaya) and locates it adjacent to the Dasrana country (eastern Malwa), east of Gujarat[149]. Distance between Kamboja and Dasarna country is stated to be 80 Yojna [150].
Vishnudharmottara Purana [151] also includes the Kambojas in the list of Janapadas of south-west India [152]
.
Raajbilaas, a medieval era text also locates a Kamboj settlement in the neighborhood of Kachcha, Sorata or Saurashtra and Gurjara countries of south-west India [153].
Interestingly, Agni Purana locates two Kamboja settlements in India itself...(1) Kambhoja in south-west India and (2) Kamboja in southern parts of India[154].
The Garuda Purana which was composed comparatively late, also locates a Kamboj principality/settlement in the neighborhood of Ashmaka, Pulinda, Jimuta, Narashtra, Lata and Karnata countries, and also specifically informs us that this section of Kambojas were living in southern division of India (dakshina.path.vasinah) [155].
But like Agni Purana, some recensions of Garuda Purana mention two Kamboja settlements within India proper. ...one in south-west India and the second in southern India [156].
The above post-
Pahlavas, had spread and settled into western and south-western parts of India [157]
.
The Kambojas in/around west, south-west India are also attested from inscriptions of king Sahasiva Raya of Sangama Dynasty (1336-1478), kings Harihara & Deva Raya of Narasinga Dynasty (1496-1567), and from the references of king Vishnuvardhana of Hoiyasala Dynasty/Mysore (of 12th c CE).
Due to the above cited literary/inscriptional evidence, some historians like Aiyangar, Banerjee etc have located their Kamboja in Sindhu and Gujarat [158]. Obviously, their Kamboja refers to the post-Christian settlements of Kambojas in western/or south-western India and is not the original Kamboja of the Sanskrit/Pali literature.
According to History of Ceylon, 'the Kambojas who inhabited a region bordering upper
Candahar and Cabul, who when the nomadic tide was setting eastwards, joined the crowd, and sought settlements in the more fertile countries within the Indus ( or Sind)" [160]
Biography of Shankara Acharya based on his religious itineraries refers to Kambhoja located in Saurashtra comprising Girnar, Somnath, Prabhasa and other regions and a Kamboja located in Central Asia adjacent to Daradistan but lying north of Kashmir. This eighth-century reference clearly attests two Kamboja settlements, one of which specifically fixed in Saurashtra [4][161].
Kambhoja Raja Kathalu is highly popular in
Pahlavas
hordes in the Christian era.
Some historians have also invested western Kshatrapas, especially the Kshahrata Kshatrapas with Kamboja ethnicity[162].
Evidence about joint invasions
The clans of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Paradas, etc had been invading India from Central Asia many years before the Christian era. These peoples were all absorbed into the community of Kshatriyas of mainstream Indian society [163].
The
Vindhyas [166]. The Baraca of the Periplus (first century AD) has been identified with the Bahlika [167]
.
The Shakas were formerly a people of trans-Hemodos region---the Shakadvipa of the
Puranas or the Scythia of the classical writings. Isidor of Charax (beginning of first c AD) attests them in Sakastana (modern Seistan). First century CE Periplus
of the Erythraean Sea (c AD 70-80) also attests a Scythian district in lower Indus with Minnagra as its capital. Ptolemy (c AD 140) also attests Indo-Scythia in south-western India which comprised Patalene, Abhira and the Surastrene (Saurashtra) territories.
The Paradas anciently inhabited the mountainous region between the upper courses of
Pahlavas are originally attested to have been living in east Iranian regions in Central Asia. But, later evidence testifies that this people had also established some of their settlements in South-west/Southern India in post-Christian times. See Migration of Kambojas: [5]
The
Paradas, Kambojas and Rishikas are listed together and are placed in the west near the sea shore [171]
.
This Rishika settlement lied between
Nasik Cave Inscriptions of Queen Balasri which mentions the Risikas (Asikas) as a component of Gautamiputra Satkaranai's empire [179]
and strongly endorses the earlier migration of Risikas/Asikas (Asii or Yuezhi) in the Deccan also. The Kambojas are also abundantly attested to have migrated and settled in south-west and southern division of India.
Barbaras were originally attested to have been living in extreme northewest on the banks of river Sita
Sindhu) had seven mouths and all were shallow and unnavigable except the middle one on which was located Barbaricum, a trading seaport. Behind this tradeport was located minnagra, the capital of Skythia[184]
.
The facts presented above show that the second century BCE Scythian invasion of India, was in all probability carried out jointly by the
. As a result, groups of these people who had originally lived in the northwest before the Christian era, were also found to have lived in southwest India in post-Christian times. All these groups of north-western peoples apparently entered Indian mainland following the so-called Scythian Invasion of India.
References
^Ma-Twan-Lin'sChinese Encyclopedia of the 13th century AD states: "In ancient times, the Hiung-nu having defeated the Yue-chi, the latter went to the west and dwelt among the Ta-hia and the king of Sai went to southwards to live in Kipin. The tribes of Sai divided and dispersed so as to form here and there different kingdoms." Shin-chi, Chapter 123; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 691; History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, p 122.
^Ch'ien Han-Shu'sHistory of the first Han Dynasty says: “Formerly when the Hiung-nu conquered the Ta Yue-chi (Great Yue-chi), the latter migrated to the west and subjugated the Ta-hia whereupon the Sai-Wang went to South and ruled over Kipin” (Ch'ien Han-shu, Chapter 96A). The territory of the Wu-sun was originally the country of the Sai (Ch'ien Han-shu, Chapter 96B). The name of the Sai-Wang ruler is not given. Some scholars identify the Ta-hia in these records as Bactria (Cambridge History of India, Vol I, p 511, E. J. Rapson (Ed)).
^The Age of Imperial Unity, History and Culture of Indian People, p122, (Ed.) Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar.
^Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 296-309, Dr J. L. Kamboj.
^See: Lib.xi, p 254; See also: Annals and Antiquities, I, p 49, fn 6, James Tod
^See: Indika, Fragment 1, Diodorus II.35; See also: Annals and Antiquities, I, p 49, fn 6, James Tod.
^Qv: Nonnos Dionysiaca 40.260; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; See also: India as Known to Panini, p 70, Dr V. S. Aggarwala etc.
^Ref: Sumangavilasini, I.1; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 65
^Select Inscriptions bearing on the Indian History and Civilization, Vol I, p 10; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 297, Dr J. L. Kamboj
^Cambridge History of India, Vol I, p 510, E. J. Rapson (Ed); Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 46, Dr M. R. Singh.
Jaxartes in the Issyk-kul Lake area. Para-Sugudma seems a more reasonable location for Saka Haumavarka because there was a different Sakas settlement near Suguda to the north of Jaxartes in the lower valleys near Aral. Further, in reference to the Transoxiana Sakas, Arrian mentions the Sakas living not far from Bactria
and Sugada, likely an allusion to Haumavarka Sakas living in Tashkant, Fargana and Kashgar (See: History and Culture of Indian People, Vol II, p 120).
^ See discussion in 'Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country', 1981, p 296 sqq., Dr J. L. Kamboj.
^Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 297, Dr J. L. Kamboj; cf also: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, pp 381, 691-92, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury and Dr B. N. Murkerjee
^Lohan paramakambojanrishikan uttaranpi...Mahabharata 2.27.25. See Ganguli's Trans: http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m02/m02026.htm. But it may be noted that Mr Ganguli has erroneously translated the expression Parama Kambojas as Eastern Kambojas which designation for Parama Kambojas is not correct and is misleading. Therefore see: Geographical Data in Early Puranas, pp 167-68, Dr M. R. Singh; Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 1-8, K. D. Sethna; cf: A Geographical Text of Puranas: A Further Critical Study, Purana Vol VI, No 1, Feb 1962, pp 112- sqq.; Purana, Vol VI, No 1, pp 207-14 etc
(See Report: Ethnography of Ancient India, p 43, Robert Shafer)
^Pirart 1998:542; Linguistic aspects of the Aryan non-invasion theory, section 3.5. (Pre-IE substratum in Indo-Aryan: language X), Dr. Koenraad ELST, see link: http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/articles/aid/keaitlin1.html; Central Asiatic Provinces of Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 48-49, Dr J. L. Kamboj, Ancient Kamboja in Iran and Islam, p 66-70, Dr H. W. Bailey etc.
^See: Alam-shahir, p 18; Kamboj Itihaas, 1971, H. S. Thind.
^ J. W. McCrindle, Ancient India, Trans & edited Dr R. C. Majumdar, 1927, p 275, 325; Central Asiatic Provinces of the Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 48-49, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 92, S Kirpal Singh.
^Central Asiatic Provinces of the Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 48-49, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 92, S Kirpal Singh.
^op cit., 1927, p 268, 278, Dr J. W. McCrindle, Dr R. C. Majumdar
^ See: Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; India and the World, 1964, p 71, Dr Buddha Prakash; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 91-92, S Kirpal Singh ; On Kamboja-Kumuda and Komdei connection, see detailed discussion in Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 48-49, 155, 299-300, Dr J. L. Kamboj.
^India as Known to Panini, p 70, Dr V. S. Aggarwala, The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, S. Kirpal Singh.
^ See: The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 59, 92, 159, S Kipral Singh
(Raghu Nath Sinha, Shukarjatrangini tatha Rajatarangini Sangraha: p 110).
Kabol
valley. Dr Michael and some other scholars asserts that Ambaurai = (K)ambautai = Kamboja. It is also asserted that –tai in Ambautai is a Scythian suffix (Italo Ronca, Ostiran und Zentralasien bei Ptolemeios, Diss. Mainz 1968., p 121; cf also Bulitai]”; Hydronomy of Nepal, Dr Michael Witzel, p 40, fn 98.). The Ambautai here apparently refers to the cis- Hindukush branch of Kambojas if the interpretation of Dr Michael is to be believed. And Geography implies they were Scythians people. Thus the Kambojas lying on the southern side of Hindukush were also included in the Scythian category of Classical writers.
^Atri-Samhita, VII.2; History of Dharmaśāstra: (ancient and Mediæval Religious and Civil Law), 1930, p 384, P. V. Kane, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, India.(Bombay); A Corpus of Indian Studies, Eassays in honor of Gaurinath Sastri, 1980, p 396, Gauri Natha Bhattacharya, A. L. Bhasham, Gaurinath Sastria.
^History and Culture of Indian People,The Age of Imperial Unity, p 11, Ed Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, pp 692,717, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee
Punjab
^History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity, p 111; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692.
^For Asii = Aswa = Horse-people, see: Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, reprint (2002), pp 53-54, 64 fn 1 etc
Scythic race have same origin. Hence Asi-gurh (Hasi/Hansi) and Asii-gard, the first settlements of Scythic Asii in Scandinavia
" (See: Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Reprint (2002), Vol I, p 64 fn 1. Also see: pp 51-54, 87, 95; Vol-2, P 2, James Tod.
^For nomenclature Aspasii, Hipasii, see: The Pathans, 1958, pp 37, 55-56, Olaf Caroe.
Ashvakayana
Kambojas of Indian texts). See: Hist. Nat. VI 21.8-23.11; See Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian, Trans. and edited by Dr J. W. McCrindle, Calcutta and Bombay,: Thacker, Spink, 1877, 30-174.
^ Lohan. ParamaKambojan.Rishikan.uttaranapi:MBH 2.27.25; Kambojarishika ye cha MBH 5.5.15 etc.
^ Political History of Ancient India, 19996, Commentary, p 719, Dr B. N. Mukerjee
nomadic people in about the same period. In other words, the Greek rule in Bactria
was put to end in c 130/29 BCE due to invasion by the Great Yue-chis and the Scythians Sakas nomads (Commentary: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692-93, Dr B. N. Mukerjee).
Oxus
valley as neighbors to the Tukharas who were living in western parts of Oxus valley (See: The Land of the Kambojas, Purana, Vol V, No, July 1962, p 250, Dr D. C. Sircar). These Kambojas apparently were descendants of that section of the Kambojas who, instead of leaving their ancestral land during second c BCE under assault from Ta Yue-chi, had compromised with the invaders and had decided to stay put in their ancestral land instead of moving to Helmond valley or to the Kabol valley.
Buddhist Sanskrit Vinaya text (Dr N. Dutt, Gilgit Manuscripts, III, 3, 136, quoted in B.S.O.A.S XIII, 404) has the expression satam Kambojikanam kanayanam i.e a hunderd maidens from Kamboja. This has been rendered in Tibetan as Tho-gar yul-gyi bu-mo brgya and in Mongolian
as Togar ulus-un yagun ükin. Thus Kamboja has been rendered as Tho-gar or Togar. And Tho-gar/Togar is Tibetan/Mongolian names for Tokhar/Tukhar. See refs: Irano-Indica III, H. W. Bailey Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1950 , pp. 389-409; see also: Ancient Kamboja, Iran and Islam, 1971, p 66, Dr H. W. Bailey.
^Cambridge History of India, Vol I, p 510; Taxila, Vol I, p 24, Marshal, Early History of North India, p 50, Dr S. Chattopadhyava.
^ Op cit p 693, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Early History of North India, p 3, Dr S. Chattopadhyava; India and Central Asia, p 126, Dr P. C. Bagchi
^Epigraphia Indiaca XIV, p 291 Dr S Konow; Greeks in Bactria and India, p 473, fn, Dr W. W. Taran; Yuan Chwang I, p 259-60, Watters; Comprehensive History of India, Vol I, p 189, Dr N. K. Sastri; History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, 122; History and Culture of Indian People, Classical Age, p 617, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar.
^Scholars like Dr E. J. Rapson, Dr L. Petech etc also connect Ki-pin with Kapisha. Dr Levi holds that prior to 600 AD, Ki-pin denoted Kashmir, but after this it implied Kapisha See Discussion in The Classical Age, p 671.
^Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, II. 1. XX f; cf: Early History of North India, pp 54, Dr S Chattopadhyaya.
^India and Central Asia, 1955, p 124, Dr P. C. Bagch; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 47, Dr M. R. Singh.
^See: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p fn 13, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Chilas, Islamabad, 1983, no 72, 78, 85, pp 98, 102, A. H. Dani; The Śakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture, 1976, p 38, Vishwa Mitra Mohan - Indo-Scythians.
^Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol II, Part 1, p xxxvi, see also p 36; Bihar and Orisaa Research Society, Vol XVI, 1930, part III and IV, p 229 etc
^ Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 693.
^ See refs: The Sakas in India, p 14, Dr S. Chattopadhyaya; The Development of Khroshthi Script, p 77, Dr C. C. Dasgupta; Hellenism in Ancient India, p 120, Dr G. N. Banerjee; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 308, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 169, S Kirpal Singh etc
^ Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Society, Vol XVI, Parts III and IV, 1930, p 229; Hindu Polity, 1943, p 144, Dr K. P. Jayswal
^ The Sakas in India and their Impact on Indian life and culture, 1976, pp 28, 24, Dr V. M. Mohan.
^Journal of Asiiatic Society of ofBengal, Vol XLIII., part I, 1874, pp 260, 271; Helleniosm in Ancient India, pp 19-20, G. N. Banerjee
^Geography in Ancient Indian Inscriptions, Up to 650 A.D., 1973, p 11, Parmanand Gupta.
^History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, p 121, (Ed) Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar; Ancient India, 2003, p 116, Dr V. D. Mahajan
^ Epigraphia Indica, IX, p 138ff; Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1906, p 207f, 215f.
^Hist & Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, p 121; Ancient India, 2002, p 416, Dr V. D. Mahajan; Cf: Catalogue Of The Coins Of The Andhra Dynasty, The Western Ksatrapas, The Traikutaka Dynasty...., p xcix, fn 1, Dr E. J. Rapson; Advanced History of India, 1971, p 155, Dr K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, G Srinivasachari, etc. IMPORTANT NOTE: The term IRANIAN ELEMENTS here refers to the KAMBOJAS. See also: Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 169, Kirpal Singh etc.
^Cf: Ancient Persia, 2001, p 111, Josef Wiesehofer, Azizeh Azedi.
^Cf: The dynasty of Maues (Id. Sec 13, 29). The difficulty of distinguishing between Scythic (Sakas) and Iranic (Pahlavas etc) invaders in India during this period is well known. THE PROPER NAMES AFFORD THE ONLY MEANS OF MAKING A DISTINCTION BETWWEEN THEM, AND A CONSIDERATION OF THESE SUPPLIES IS NO CERTAIN GUIDE, since names derived from both sources are applied to members of the SAME FAMILIY. The reason for this confusion is admirably explained by Dr Thomas. He says (J.R.A.S., 1906, p 215): "It would seem probable that the tribes from Eastern Iran who had invaded India included adverse elements mingled indistinguishably together, so that it is not possible to assert that one dynasty is Parthian (Iranic) and the other is Saka (Scythic). A regular invasion by Parthian empire seems to be not recorded and, a priori, highly probable. We must think rather of inroads by the adventurers of various origins among whom one or another, as Maues, was able to assert temporary supremacy" (See quote in: Catalogue Of The Coins Of The Andhra Dynasty, The Western Ksatrapas, The Traikutak Dynasty And The Bodhi Dynasty: The Western Ksatrapas, the Traikūṭaka Dynasty and the "Bodhi" Dynasty, with One Map and Twenty-one Plates, p xcix, fn 1, Dr E. J. Rapson).
^ The Sakas before their entry into India probably lived for a long time in Iranian uplands under Parthian rulers. There must have been a good deal of admixture of the Scythians, Parthians and the Iranian elements among the early Sakas (Advanced History of India, 1971, p 155, Dr K. A. N. Sastri).
^Ancient Persia: From 550 BC to 650 AD, 2001, p 111, Josef Wiesehofer, Azizeh Azodi.
^ See: Detailed discussion in Ancient Kamboja People and the Country, 1981, pp 296-30, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 158-61, 166-70, S Kirpal Singh .
taih asit samvrita bhuumih Shakaih-Yavana mishritaih || 1.54-21 ||
taih taih Yavana-Kamboja barbarah ca akulii kritaah || 1-54-23 ||
tasya humkaarato jatah Kamboja ravi sannibhah |
udhasah tu atha sanjatah Pahlavah shastra panayah || 1-55-2 ||
yoni deshaat ca Yavanah Shakri deshat Shakah tathaa |
roma kupesu Mlecchah ca Haritah sa Kiratakah || 1-55-3 ||.
^The Śakas in India, 1981, p 12, Satya Shrava; Journal, 1920, p 175, University of Calcutta. Department of Letters; India & Russia: Linguistic & Cultural Affinity, 1982, p 100, Weer Rajendra Rishi; Indological Studies, 1950, p 32, Dr B. C. Law; Political History of India from the Accession of Parikshit to the Coronation of Bimbisara, 1923, Page iii, Hemchandra Raychaudhuri; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 4, Raychaudhury; Indological Studies, 1950, p 4, Dr B. C. Law.
^Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India, 2007, p 358, Johannes Bronkhorst.
^The Great Epic of India: Its Character and Origin, 1901, p 393, Edward Washburn Hopkins - Mahābhārata; Materials for the Study of the Early History of the Vaishnava Sect, 1975, p 42, Hemchandra Raychaudhuri - Vaishnavism; Hellenism in Ancient India, 1920, p 231, Gauranga Nath Banerjee - Hellenism; See also: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 4; Journal, 1920, p 176, Dept. of Letters, University of Calcutta, University of Calcutta Dept. of Letters - Buddhism.
^MBH 5. 9. 65; Dates of the Buddha, 1987, p 114, Shriram Sathe; Aśoka , 1955, p 28, Devadatta Ramakrishna Bhandarkar.
^Kambojas and Yavanas are described as Ashva.yuddha.kushalah: See: Mahabharata 7.7.14; The Kambojas and Gandharas are described as expert-fighters on horse-back: See also: Vishnudharmotra Purana, Part II, Chapter 118; Post Gupta Polity (AD 500-700): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration 1972, p 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha; Military Wisdom in the Purānas, 1979, p 64, P. Sensarma; Ancient Indian Civilization, 1985, p 120, Grigoriĭ Maksimovich Bongard-Levin; Kashmir Polity, C. 600-1200 A.D., 1986, p 237, V. N. Drabu; Polity in the Agni Purāna, 1965, Bambahadur Mishra etc etc.
^Cf: "After the disintegration of Mauryan empire, the insecured frontier region of north-western part of India invited several foreign invaders i.e Yavasnas, Sakas-Kambojas, Pahlavas from western and Central Asia who came in India through migrations and invasions…The Moral and social degradation in the Indian society is indicated due to foreign invasions. Mahabharata states that Andhara, Sakas, Kambojas, Pulinda, Yavans, Vahlikas, Sudras, Abhiras, Mlechchas, will rule over the land and also will be addicted to falsehood" (Ref: Social Justice: Problems & Perspectives :{Seminar Proceedings of March 5-7, 1995}, Edition 1996, P 173, Jhinkoo Yadav, Suman Gupta, Chandrajeet Yadav); See also: Ancient Kamboja People and the Country, 1981, J. L. Kamboj.
^Matsya Purana, -- A Study, pp 228-230, V. S. Aggarwal.
Pusyamitra Sunga
.
^Kalki Purana, Chapter 20/40 sqq; See also: Kalki Purana, 2004, p 58, (See pp 60, 61 also), B K Chaturvedi. See link: [1].
^Cf:In the Katha- Saritasagara, king Vikarmaditya is said to have destroyed all the barbarous tribes such as the Kambojas, Yavanas, Hunas, Tokharas and Persians (See: Ref: Reappraising the Gupta History, 1992, p 169, B. C. Chhabra, Sri Ram.
^Cf: Vikrama Volume, 1948, p xxv, Vikramāditya Śakāri.
^Vikramāditya of Ujjayinī: The Founder of the Vikrama Era, 1951, p 114, Rajbali Pandey.
^Kshatrapasa pra Kharaostasa Artasa putrasa. See: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 398, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 307, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Ancient India, 1956, p 220-221, Dr R. K. Mukerjee; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 168, S Kirpal Singh.
^Corpus Inscrioptionum Indicarum, Vol II, Part I, pp xxxvi, 36, S Konow; Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland - 1834, p 142, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Early Inscriptions of Mathurā: A Study, 1980, p 27, Kalyani Das; Ancient India, 1956, p 220, Dr Radha Kumud Mukerjee; History of Indian Administration - 1968, p 94, Dr B. N Puri; These Kamboja People, 1979, p 142; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 168, Kirpaql Singh; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, pp 227/228, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī; Cf: Göttingische Gelehrte Anzeigen - 1931, p 12, Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Göttingische anzeigen von gelehrten sachen; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 306-09.
^This Kambhoja country of southern India as hinted at by Syed Siraj ul Hassanis, in all probability, is the colonial settlement of the migrating Kambojas, who in alliance with the Sakas, Pahlavas had entered into and spread into south-western and southern India prior to/around the beginning of Christian era.
^Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay, 1862, p 27, Asiatic Society of Bombay - Orient; Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 78, Oriental Institute (Vadodara, India) - Oriental studies.
^See: J.R.A S. of Bombay (Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Bombay Branch, p 25/26.
^Indian Antiquary, 1893, p 171, J. F. Fleet; Indo-Greek numismatics, 1970, 14, Richard Bertram Whitehead.
^See also: Brihat Samhita, Journal R.A.S.N. S. V. 84; Varāhamihira's Bṛhat Saṁhitā, 1981, p 174, M. Ramakrishna Bhat; The Fundamental Unity of India, 2004, p 91, Radha Kumud Mookerji.
^Indo-Aryans: Contributions Towards the Elucidation of Their Ancient and ..., 1881, p 214, Rājendralāla Mitra - India.
^India Greeks, 1970, p 14. Richard Bertram Whitehead; The Metaphysic of Experience in Advaita Vedānta: A Phenomenological Approach, 1983, p 174, Debabrata Sinha, Manjari Ohala - Hindu astrology; Parsis of Ancient India, 1920, p 9,Shapurji Kavasji Hodivala, Śāpurajī Kāvasajī Hoḍīvālā - Parsees; Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland , 1834, p 218, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland - Asia.
^Alberuni's India: An Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature ..., 1910, p 302, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Bīrūnī, Al-Bīrūnī, Trans: Eduard Sachau - Hindu Chronology; Alberuni's Indica: A Record of the Cultural History of South Asia about A.D , 1973, p 28, Ahmad Hasan Dani, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Bīrūnī, Eduard Sachau,Hindu Civilization.
^e.g: "The people of Pulinda, Ashmaka and Jimutanya, as well Kambhojas, Karnatas and Ghatas are Dakshinapathvasi (i.e live in southern quarter); the people of Amvasthas, Dravidias, Lattas, Kambojas, Strimukhas, Sakas and Anarthas (Anartas) are Nairritis (i.e live in south-west quarter)"...See Garuda Purana, Trans: Manmatha Nath Dutt, 1908, p 148.
^ For more references attesting Kamboja settlement in south-west India in post-Christian times, See also: India as Seen in the Brhatsamhitā of Varāhamihira, 1969, A. M. Shastri, Reader in Ancient Indian History & Culture, Nagpur University; Le Monde oriental, 1941, p 94; Modi Memorial Volume: Papers on Indo-Iranian and Other Subjects, 1930, p 356, Sir Jivanji Jamshedji Modi); The Social History of Kamarupa, 1983, p 132, Nagendranath Vasu; cf: Bharatavarsa, Kirfel, p 29, 3; cf also: The Social History of Kamarupa, 1983, p 191, Nagendranath Vasu, for Kamboja location adjoining Karnata and Lata countries in southern India.
^Ancient India, p 7, S. K. Aiyangar; Public Administration in Ancient India, p 56, P. N. Banerjee.
^See: History of Ceylon, 1973, pp xxxi, 91, K. M. De Silva, Hem Chandra Ray. See also references quoted in the text.
^See: A History of Architecture in All Countries: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day, 1876, p 28, James Fergusson - 1876 .
^For more references on Kamboja intrusion into Gujerat/Surashtra, see also: Main Currents in the Ancient History of Gujarat, 1960, pp 1-68, Bhasker Anand Saletore, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Dept. of History); Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1939, p 232, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
^History and Culture of Indian People, The Vedic Age, pp 286-87, 313-14.
^See the expression: (Saurashtransbahlikanchandrachitranstathaivacha).
^ see expression (Surashtransabahlikassudrabhirastathaivacha).
^Geographiacal Data in Early Puranas, A Critical Study, p 127, Dr M. R. Singh; The Purana Text of the Dynastics of the Kali Age, p 50, Dr P. E. Pargiter.
^Periplus p 174; Ethnic Settlements in Ancient India, p 174; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, p 127, Dr M. R. Singh etc
^Vayu (V) Purana I.47.444; Brahmanda Purana (V), I, 2.18.46-47; Matsya Purana 120.45.46;Alberuni’s India, I,261ff; Invasion of India by Alexander the Great, J. W. McCrindle, p 67n, J. W. Mccrindle
^ cf: Interaction Between India and Western World, pp 75-93, H. G. Rawlinson; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 306; cf: India and the World, p 154, Dr Buddha Parkash; cf: Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 159-60, 168-69, S Kirpal Singh.
Books and Periodicals
Political History of ancient India, 1996, Dr H. C. raychaudhury
Hindu Polity, A Constitutional history of India in Hindu Times, 1978, Dr K. P. Jayswal
Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, Dr M. R. Singh
Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, Dr J. L. Kamboj
Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, S Kipal Singh
India and Central Asia, 1955, Dr P. C. Bagchi
Geography of Puranas, 1973, Dr S. M. Ali
Greeks in Bactria and India, Dr W. W. Tarn
Early History of North India, Dr S. Chattopadhyava
Sakas in Ancient India, Dr S. Chattopadhyava
Development of Kharoshthi script, C. C. Dasgupta
Ancient India, 1956, Dr R. K. Mukerjee
India and the World, p 154, Dr Buddha Parkash
These Kamboj People, 1979, K. S. Dardi
Ancient India, Vol III, Dr T. L. Shah
Hellenism in Ancient India, Dr G. N. Banerjee
Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol XLIII, Part I, 1884
Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Society, Vol XVI, Part III, & IV, 1930
Manu and Yajnavalkya, Dr K. P. Jayswal
Anabaseeos Alexanddrou, Arrian
Geography, by Ptolemy
Mathura Lion Capital Inscriptions
Corpus Inscriptionium Indicarum, Vol II, Part I, Dr S Konow
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