World energy resources
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
|
World energy resources are the estimated maximum capacity for energy production given all available resources on Earth. They can be divided by type into fossil fuel, nuclear fuel and renewable resources.
Fossil fuel
Remaining reserves of fossil fuel are estimated as:[1]
Fuel | Proven energy reserves in zettajoule (ZJ) as of the end of 2009
|
---|---|
Coal | 19.8 |
Gas | 36.4 |
Oil | 8.9 |
These are the proven energy reserves; real reserves may be four or more times larger. These numbers are very uncertain. Estimating the remaining
There is uncertainty in the total amount of reserves, but also in how much of these can be recovered gainfully, for technological, economic and political reasons, such as the accessibility of fossil deposits, the levels of sulfur and other pollutants in the oil and the coal, transportation costs, and societal instability in producing regions. In general the easiest to reach deposits are the first extracted.
Coal
Coal is the most abundant and burned fossil fuel. This was the fuel that launched the industrial revolution and continued to grow in use; China, which already has many of the world's most polluted cities,[2] was in 2007 building about two coal-fired power plants every week.[3][4] Coal's large reserves would make it a popular candidate to meet the energy demand of the global community, short of global warming concerns and other pollutants.[5]
Natural gas
Natural gas is a widely available fossil fuel with estimated 850 000 km3 in recoverable reserves and at least that much more using enhanced methods to release shale gas. Improvements in technology and wide exploration led to a major increase in recoverable natural gas reserves as shale fracking methods were developed. At present usage rates, natural gas could supply most of the world's energy needs for between 100 and 250 years, depending on increase in consumption over time.
Oil
It is estimated that there may be 57
There is growing concern that
In a stated goal of increasing oil prices to $75/barrel, which had fallen from a high of $147 to a low of $40, OPEC announced decreasing production by 2.2 mbd beginning 1 January 2009.[13]
Sustainability
Political considerations over the security of supplies, environmental concerns related to
A government moving away from fossil fuels would most likely create economic pressure through
The antithesis of sustainability is a disregard for limits, commonly referred to as the Easter Island Effect, which is the concept of being unable to develop sustainability, resulting in the depletion of natural resources.[15] Some estimate that, assuming current consumption rates, current oil reserves could be completely depleted by 2050.[16]
Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy
The
Resources and technology do not constrain the capacity of nuclear power to contribute to meeting the energy demand for the 21st century. However, political and environmental concerns about
Although at the beginning of the 21st century uranium is the primary nuclear fuel worldwide, others such as thorium and hydrogen had been under investigation since the middle of the 20th century.
Thorium reserves significantly exceed those of uranium, and of course hydrogen is abundant. It is also considered by many to be easier to obtain than
Since the 1960s, numerous facilities throughout the world have burned Thorium.[citation needed]
Nuclear fusion
Alternatives for energy production through fusion of hydrogen have been under investigation since the 1950s. No materials can withstand the temperatures required to ignite the fuel, so it must be confined by methods which use no materials. Magnetic and inertial confinement are the main alternatives (Cadarache, Inertial confinement fusion) both of which are hot research topics in the early years of the 21st century.
Nuclear fusion is the process powering the sun and other stars. It generates large quantities of heat by fusing the nuclei of hydrogen or helium isotopes, which may be derived from seawater. The heat can theoretically be harnessed to generate electricity. The temperatures and pressures needed to sustain fusion make it a very difficult process to control. Fusion is theoretically able to supply vast quantities of energy, with relatively little pollution.[21] Although both the United States and the European Union, along with other countries, are supporting fusion research (such as investing in the ITER facility), according to one report, inadequate research has stalled progress in fusion research for the past 20 years.[22]
Renewable resources
Renewable resources are available each year, unlike non-renewable resources, which are eventually depleted. A simple comparison is a coal mine and a forest. While the forest could be depleted, if it is managed it represents a continuous supply of energy, vs. the coal mine, which once has been exhausted is gone. Most of earth's available energy resources are renewable resources. Renewable resources account for more than 93 percent of total U.S. energy reserves. Annual renewable resources were multiplied times thirty years for comparison with non-renewable resources. In other words, if all non-renewable resources were uniformly exhausted in 30 years, they would only account for 7 percent of available resources each year, if all available renewable resources were developed.[23]
Biomass
Production of biomass and biofuels are growing industries as interest in sustainable fuel sources is growing. Utilizing waste products avoids a
Geothermal
Estimates of exploitable worldwide
A 2006 report by the MIT that took into account the use of Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) concluded that it would be affordable to generate 100 GWe (gigawatts of electricity) or more by 2050, just in the United States, for a maximum investment of 1 billion US dollars in research and development over 15 years.[30] The MIT report calculated the world's total EGS resources to be over 13 YJ, of which over 0.2 YJ would be extractable, with the potential to increase this to over 2 YJ with technology improvements – sufficient to provide all the world's energy needs for several thousand years.[30] The total heat content of the Earth is 13,000,000 YJ.[29]
Hydropower
In 2005, hydroelectric power supplied 16.4% of world electricity, down from 21.0% in 1973, but only 2.2% of the world's energy.[31]
Solar energy
Renewable energy sources are even larger than the traditional fossil fuels and in theory can easily supply the world's energy needs. 89 PW[32] of solar power falls on the planet's surface. While it is not possible to capture all, or even most, of this energy, capturing less than 0.02% would be enough to meet the current energy needs. Barriers to further solar generation include the high price of making solar cells and reliance on weather patterns to generate electricity. Also, current solar generation does not produce electricity at night, which is a particular problem in high northern and southern latitude countries; energy demand is highest in winter, while availability of solar energy is lowest. This could be overcome by buying power from countries closer to the equator during winter months, and may also be addressed with technological developments such as the development of inexpensive energy storage. Globally, solar generation is the fastest growing source of energy, seeing an annual average growth of 35% over the past few years. China, Europe, India, Japan, and the United States are the major growing investors in solar energy. Solar power's share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 1%.[33]
Wave and tidal power
At the end of 2005, 0.3 GW of electricity was produced by tidal power.[34] Due to the tidal forces created by the Moon (68%) and the Sun (32%), and Earth's relative rotation with respect to Moon and Sun, there are fluctuating tides. These tidal fluctuations result in dissipation at an average rate of about 3.7 TW.[35]
Another physical limitation is the energy available in the tidal fluctuations of the oceans, which is about 0.6 EJ (
Waves are derived from wind, which is in turn derived from solar energy, and at each conversion there is a drop of about two orders of magnitude in available energy. The total power of waves that wash against Earth's shores adds up to 3 TW.[37]
Wind power
The available wind energy estimates range from 300 TW to 870 TW.[32][38] Using the lower estimate, just 5% of the available wind energy would supply the current worldwide energy needs. Most of this wind energy is available over the open ocean. The oceans cover 71% of the planet and wind tends to blow more strongly over open water because there are fewer obstructions.
References
- ^ "Proven energy reserves, BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2010" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-08-25. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ The Middle Landfill[dead link]
- ^ "China building more power plants". 2007-06-19. Archived from the original on 2019-06-17. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "COAL: Scrubbing its future". Archived from the original on 2011-04-01. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ Pollution From Chinese Coal Casts a Global Shadow Archived 2019-06-29 at the Wayback Machine accessed 14 October 2007
- ^ Smil, p. 204
* Tester, et al., p. 303
* "OPEC 2005 Annual Statistical Bulletin" (PDF). Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-01-31. Retrieved 2007-01-25. - ^ "USGS World Energy Assessment Team". Archived from the original on 2019-07-07. Retrieved 2007-01-18.
- ^ "Consumption by fuel, 1965 - 2008". Statistical Review of World Energy 2009, BP. July 31, 2006. Archived from the original (XLS) on July 8, 2009. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
- ^ "Oil Gas Industry Stats". oiljobsource.com. Archived from the original on 2018-04-08. Retrieved 2011-02-07.
- ^ Gold Russell, Davis Ann (2007-11-10). "Oil Officials See Limit Looming on Production". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 2013-07-08. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ Porter, Adam (10 June 2005). "'Peak oil' enters mainstream debate". BBC. Archived from the original on 3 May 2009. Retrieved 2007-02-02.
- ^ International Petroleum Monthly Archived 2010-11-16 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 10 November 2009
- ^ Opec agrees record oil output cut Archived 2019-06-29 at the Wayback Machine retrieved 21 December 2008
- ^ "Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council: Renewable Energy Roadmap: Renewable Energies in the 21st century; building a sustainable future - COM(2006) 848" (PDF). Commission of the European Communities. 10 January 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 January 2007. Retrieved 2007-01-27.
- ^ "Basic Concepts of Sustainable Development for Business Students" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-06. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "World Proved1 Reserves of Oil and Natural Gas, Most Recent Estimates". Energy Information Administration. Archived from the original on 17 February 2012. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ "Global Ur Resources to Meet Projected Demand: Latest Edition of "Red Book" Predicts Consistent Supply Up to 2025". International Atomic Energy Agency. 2 June 2006. Archived from the original on 5 August 2014. Retrieved 2007-02-01.
- ^ Nakicenovic, Nebojsa; et al. "IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Archived from the original on 2018-03-01. Retrieved 2007-02-20. Special Report on Emissions Scenarios
- ^ "Syria 'had covert nuclear scheme'". BBC News. 2008-04-25. Archived from the original on 2008-04-30. Retrieved 2010-12-06.
- ^ "Thorium Power is the Safer Future of Nuclear Energy". Archived from the original on 2015-01-21. Retrieved 2015-03-26.
- ^ Fusion Energy: Safety Archived 2011-07-20 at the Wayback Machine European Fusion Development Agreement (EFDA). 2006. Retrieved on 2007-04-03
- ^ "Fifty years of U.S. fusion research - An overview of programs st" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-07-11. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "Renewable Resources in the U.S. Electricity Supply". Archived from the original on 2010-05-12. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- New York Times. Archivedfrom the original on 2019-08-07. Retrieved 2017-02-23. Registration required. "Almost all biofuels used today cause more greenhouse gas emissions than conventional fuels if the full emissions costs of producing these “green” fuels are taken into account, two studies being published Thursday have concluded."
- S2CID 206510225.
- S2CID 52810681.
- ^ "The New Math of Alternative Energy". Archived from the original on 2009-10-09. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "All About Geothermal energy". Geothermal Energy Association - Washington, DC. Archived from the original on 2006-09-29. Retrieved 2007-02-07.
- ^ a b Fridleifsson, Ingvar B.; Bertani, Ruggero; Huenges, Ernst; Lund, John W.; Ragnarsson, Arni; Rybach, Ladislaus (2008-02-11). O. Hohmeyer and T. Trittin (ed.). The possible role and contribution of geothermal energy to the mitigation of climate change (PDF). IPCC Scoping Meeting on Renewable Energy Sources. Luebeck, Germany. pp. 59–80. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-22. Retrieved 2009-04-06.
- ^ a b "The Future of Geothermal Energy" (PDF). MIT. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-03-10. Retrieved 2007-02-07.
- ^ "Key World Energy Statistics 2007" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-10-03. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ ISBN 0-262-20153-4.
- ^ http://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/REN12-GSR2015_Onlinebook_low1.pdf Archived 2019-04-12 at the Wayback Machine pg31
- ^ "Renewables, Global Status Report 2006" (PDF). Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
- .
- ISBN 978-90-277-2552-3. See page 225.
- ^ Tester, et al., p. 593
- ^ "Exergy Flow Charts". Archived from the original on 2017-09-11. Retrieved 2011-03-28.