Fast fashion
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Fast fashion is the
Fast fashion grew during the late 20th century as
Fast fashion's
Origins
Before the 1800s, fashion was a laborious, time-consuming process that required sourcing materials like wool, cotton, or leather, treating and preparing the materials by hand, then weaving or fashioning them into functional garments, also by hand. However, the Industrial Revolution changed the world of fashion by introducing new technology like the sewing machine and textile machines.[4]
As a result, clothes became cheaper and easier to make and buy. Meanwhile, localized
The Cosmopolitan journalist Lauren Bravo sees fast fashion stretching back to utility clothing and tailors who sold mass produced affordable suits for men. In the 1960s companies like Inditex and Chelsea Girl attained commercial acumen, but the brand Biba endures as a fast fashion icon.[7]
Before the popularization of the fast fashion model, the fashion industry traditionally operated on a four-season cycle, with designers working months in advance to anticipate customer preferences. However, this approach underwent a significant transformation in the 1960s and 1970s, as the younger generations began to create new trends. During this period there was still a clear distinction between
Fast fashion retailers such as Zara,[9] H&M, Topshop, and, Primark emerged as prominent brands in the high street fashion scene. Initially starting as small stores located across Europe, they were able to quickly gain prominence in the U.S. fashion market by replicating design elements from runway shows and top fashion houses and quickly reproducing them at a fraction of the cost.[10]
The origins of the "fast fashion" phenomenon involve several key players, rather than a single brand or company. One influential figure in this movement was Amancio Ortega, the founder of Zara. Established in 1963 in Galicia, Spain, Zara gained prominence by offering affordable imitations of high-end fashion trends alongside its original designs. In 1975, Ortega opened the first European retail outlet for his collections, pioneering his short-term production and distribution model. By the early 1990s, he had expanded to New York, and the New York Times coined the term fast fashion to describe Zara's business model, highlighting its ability to bring a designer's idea to store shelves in as soon as 15 days.[10]
In their 2008 article "Fast Fashion Lessons,"[11] Donald Sull and Stefano Turconi studied how Zara revolutionized the fast fashion industry. They attributed the company's success to its strategic supply chain and production network where they [Zara] maintained complicated and capital-intensive operations (like computer-guided fabric cutting) in-house, and outsourced more labour-intensive operations, such as garment sewing, to a network of local subcontractors and seamstress operatives based in Galicia.[12]
Thus, with shorter lead times, the company was able to respond rapidly to fluctuating demand by swiftly halting production of low-demand items and creating a sense of urgency for consumers to purchase in-demand clothing due to the ever-changing layout and stock of its stores.[12] Items in store may not be in stock during subsequent visits, prompting consumers to make immediate purchases if they wish to remain on trend. The clothing is then only worn a few times before it is no longer in style, creating the need to constantly return to the store and buy new, on trend items cheaply.[13]
Unlike many fashion companies, Zara rarely invests in television adverts or press promotional campaigns. Instead, it relies on store windows to convey brand image, word of mouth, and establishing store locations strategically in areas with high consumer traffic.[14]
The origin story of H&M shares common threads with Zara. Technically, it is the world's longest-running retailer. In 1946,
The foundation for expansion into the global market was laid in the 1980s when H&M acquired Rowells, a Swedish mail order company, and used its networks to sell fast fashion by catalogue and mail order. In the 1990s, H&M invested in large city billboard advertising, featuring celebrities and supermodels. H&M opened its flagship USA store on Fifth Avenue in New York City in 2000, marking the commencement of its expansion outside of Europe.[15]
Concept
Fast fashion brands produce pieces to get the newest style on the market as soon as possible.
These retailers produce and sell products in small batches, keep surplus manufacturing capacity on hand, and frequently induce items to be out of stock,[21] a practice designed to give retailers the ability to make substantial and immediate adjustments to manufacturing. For example, up to 85% of Zara's merchandise can be changed in the middle of the season:[21] A fast fashion system like Zara's can quickly update designs, resulting in short product cycles where a garment does not sit on the stores' shelf for long periods, giving the store a sense of exclusivity and raising the attractiveness of an item.[21]
Fast fashion particularly came to the fore during the vogue for "
Fast fashion has developed from a product-driven concept based on a manufacturing model referred to as "
The advancement of technology has allowed fast fashion to gain popularity over the last decade. Technology has allowed designers to create specifically what their consumers want according to what is "in" at the given moment. Every month, new things are trending and are displayed in stores to market towards youth. Technology has the power to change all the issues within the fast fashion industry. Brands such as Zara have been listening to their consumers and "thinking green" to improve their environmental impact. As Nina Davis[who?] stated in 2020, "[Companies] are also adopting advanced technologies to improve supply chain efficiency and reduce their carbon footprint."[28]
Slow fashion counter
The
In the rise of slow fashion, emphasis has been given to quality clothing that is more enduring. In the 2020 spring-summer fashion season, high-end designers led the movement of slow fashion by creating pieces that developed from environmentally friendly practices in the industry.[32] Stella McCartney is a luxury designer who focuses on sustainable and ethical practices and has done so since the 1990s.[33] British Vogue explained that the process of designing and creating clothing in slow fashion involves consciousness of materials, consumer demand, and climate impact.[32]
In her 2016 article titled "Doing Good and Looking Good: Women in 'Fast Fashion' Activism", Rimi Khan criticized the slow fashion movement, particularly the work of high-profile designers and slow fashion advocates McCartney and Vivienne Westwood, as well as other well known industry professionals such as Livia Firth, for creating fashion products which cater to a mostly western, wealthy, and female demographic.[34] Khan also pointed out that because most slow fashion products are significantly more expensive than fast fashion items, consumers are required to have a certain amount of disposable income in order to participate in the movement.[34] Khan argues that by proposing a solution to fast-fashion that is largely inaccessible to many consumers, they are positioning wealthier women as "agents of change" in the movement against fast fashion, whereas the shopping habits of lower income women are often considered "problematic".[34]
Andrea Chang provided a similar critique of the slow fashion movement in her article "The Impact of Fast Fashion on Women". She wrote that the slow and ethical fashion movements place too much responsibility on the consumers of fast fashion clothing, most of whom are women, to influence the industry through their consumption.[35] Chang suggests that because most consumers are limited in their ability to choose where and how they purchase clothing, largely due to financial factors, anti-fast fashion activists should target lawmakers, manufacturers, and investors with a stake in the fast fashion industry rather than create an alternative industry that is only accessible to some.[35]
Economics
Fast fashion proves successful economically for the retail industry worldwide. The fast-fashion market in 2020 globally produced $25.1 billion.[36] It was expected to increase at an annual compound growth rate (CAGR) of 21.9%, resulting in the global market increase to $31 billion in 2021.[36] By 2030, it is estimated that the fast fashion industry will bring a revenue of $192 billion to the world's global economy.[37]
This economic growth from fast fashion is demonstrated through how companies like
Manufacturing
The fast fashion industry is able to thrive economically through the low production costs of their manufacturers in Asia. One low production cost is the investment cost of materials to make a garment. Fast fashion invests in polyester and cotton fabric because they are inexpensive and durable. In 2020 polyester's global price per metric ton was $725 (or 32.9 cents per pound), and the global price for cotton in 2021 was 126 cents per pound.[39][40]
According to these statistics, polyester fabric is more affordable than cotton, but both are relativity cheaper than higher quality fabric such as silk or wool. One basic T-shirt would require .5 lbs of cotton material, resulting in less than $1 of cotton fabric used.[41]
Wage criticisms
The fast fashion industry faces criticism for hiring garments workers from developing countries for their low wages. There are more than 60 million workers that produce garments for the fast fashion retail, and 80 percent of those workers are women.[42]
MVO Netherlands researched in 2019 that workers' monthly wages in Ethiopia that manufacture for H&M, Gap, and JCPenney begins at $32, while an experienced worker is $122 a month.[42] The lowest hourly wage for workers in developing countries is less than 0.50 cents. In developed countries like the United States, the average garment worker in Los Angeles, reported by the Garment Worker Center (GWC), is about $5.15 per hour despite the federal minimum wage being $7.25 per hour in 2016.[43]
Hence, workers' monthly income would be about $858 if they worked 40 hours a week. This is a much higher salary than in developing countries but still lower than the U.S. standard of living in income conditions. To reach the target goals of consumer demands from the U.S. and Europe, garment laborers in developing countries, on average, are expected to work 11 hours a day.[42]
Strategy
Management
Fashion is updated frequently to meet peoples demand for the availability of the newest and latest clothing styles. The efficiency is achieved through the retailers' understanding of the
Quick response method
Quick response is now used to support fast fashion, creating new products while drawing consumers back to the retail experience for consecutive visits.
New items are delivered twice a week to the stores, reducing the time between initial sale and replenishment. As a result, the shortened time period improves consumer's garment choices and product availability while significantly increasing the number of per customer visits per annum. In the case of Renner, a Brazilian chain, a new mini-collection is released every two months.[50]
Delivery and waste
Fast fashion typically offers buyers quick shipping, meaning delivery can be same-day or only take a few days.[51] Due to constantly evolving trends, buyers need to have their item before it is no longer in style.[52] Oftentimes, fast fashion brands will offer the buyer deals, where they can spend a certain amount of money to get free shipping.[53] This creates a lot of impulse buying, resulting in the items being returned. However, fast fashion returns do not always get sold again. The company will likely throw the item out because it is no longer in style.[54]
The concerns are not simply related to solid waste any longer either. Fast fashion packaging is accountable for 40% of plastic waste according to a 2022 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development report.[55] While a recent survey found that nearly 10% of the microplastics found in the ocean occur from textile waste and discarded fashion clothing which may raise a bit of a concern going forward.[56]
Marketing
Marketing is a key driver of fast fashion, creating the desire for consumption of new designs as close as possible to the point of creation. Marketing closes the gap between creation and consumption by promoting something fast, low-priced, and disposable.[57] The continuous release of new products essentially makes the garments a highly cost-effective marketing tool that drives consumer visits, increases brand awareness, and results in higher rates of consumer purchases. Fast fashion companies have higher profit margins due to their lower % markdown percentage of 15% compared to competitors' 30% plus. The fast fashion business model reduces time cycles from production to consumption, stimulating sales through trends that change throughout the seasons. For example, the traditional fashion seasons followed the annual cycle of summer, autumn, winter and spring, but in fast fashion cycles have compressed into shorter periods of 4–6 weeks and in some cases less. Marketers have thus created more buying seasons in the same time-space.[58]
Companies use two marketing strategies, since the main difference is the amount of advertisement spending. While some companies invest in advertising, others like Primark operate with no advertising, investing in store layout and visual merchandising to create the instant hook.[59] Research shows that 75 percent of consumers' decisions are made in front of a fixture within three seconds.[44]
Social media marketing
In recent years, fast fashion retailers have taken a new approach to reaching consumers. Initially, social media's sole purpose was to act as a platform allowing people to connect with other users worldwide. However, social media has become a way for retailers to promote their products and impact consumer behavior.[60][predatory publisher] Now, consumers are able to look at products and businesses on social media before heading to a store or going online to make a purchase. Additionally, consumers can read real customer reviews on different social media accounts to get a better idea of the quality of the products as well as the customer service.[60] Fast fashion retailers were quick to jump on the trend. Fast fashion retailers like Boohoo.com realized that social media advertisements could be a great way to reach their target audience, young girls.[1] Such users were swarmed with fast fashion advertisements each time they opened Instagram. Companies like Boohoo hoped that the constant exposure to their products would influence users to not only visit their website, but also to buy clothing from them.[1]
Instead of posting pre-made ads on their accounts, fast fashion retailers realized that an effective way to advertise could be to use social media
The world saw a surge in these social media marketing practices during the
Production
"Supermarket" market
The consumer in the fast fashion market thrives on constant change and the frequent availability of new products.
Supply chain, vendor relationships and internal relationships
Supply chain
Vendor relationships
The companies in the fast fashion market also utilize a range of relationships with the suppliers. The product is first classified as "core" or "fashion".[49]
Internal relationships
Productive internal relationships within the fast fashion companies are as important as the company's relationships with external suppliers, especially regarding the company's buyers. Traditionally with a "supermarket" market the buying is divided into multi-functional departments. The buying team uses the bottom-up approach when trend information is involved, meaning the information is only shared with the company's fifteen top suppliers.[49] On the other hand, information about future aims, and strategies of production are shared downward within the buyer hierarchy so the team can consider lower cost production options.[49]
Environmental impact
According to the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe,
Journalist Elizabeth L. Cline, author of Overdressed: The Shockingly High Cost of Cheap Fashion and one of the earliest critics of fast fashion, notes in her Atlantic article Where Does Discarded Clothing Go?[66] that Americans are purchasing five times the amount of clothing than they did in 1980. Due to this rise in consumption, developed countries are producing more and more garments each season with the U.S. importing more than 1 billion garments annually from China alone.[67] United Kingdom textile consumption surged by 37% from 2001 to 2005.[68] The Global Fashion Business Journal reported that in 2018, the global fiber production has reached the highest all-time, 107 million metric tons.[69]
The average American household produces 70 pounds (32 kg) of textile waste every year.[70] The residents of New York City discard around 193,000 tons of clothing and textiles, which equates to 6% of all the city's garbage.[66] In comparison, the European Union generates a total of 5.8 million tons of textiles each year.[71] As a whole, the textile industry occupies roughly 5% of all landfill space.[70] This means that the clothing industry produces about 92 million tons of textile waste annually, much of which is burned or goes into a landfill and less than 1% of used clothing is recycled into new garments.[72] The clothing that is discarded into landfills is often made from non-biodegradable synthetic materials.[73]
Sustainability
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Recycling
The speed of clothing consumption has increased substantially since the late 1990s across the world.[80] All aspects of fast fashion have elements that are not environmentally friendly, the amounts of waste from disposal of textiles into the garbage system is increasing beyond the industries capabilities.[80] The fast fashion industry currently has little to do with the end of life cycle of clothing, however, with recent social pressures some fast fashion companies collect and export their disposed textiles to developing countries for charity.[81] As the production increases and charities are beginning to turn away fast fashion for being cheaply made, organizations are struggling to come up with sustainable solutions to continue against the social and soon governmental pressure.[81] There are many organizations that provide educational tools on how to reuse and recycle textiles to interested individuals, such as "Human Bridge (charitable organization)".[80] Additionally, the retail and textile chains that encourage recycling or reuse often provide incentives, such as Lindex, which offered a rebate to customers who turned in their clothes.[80]
There are the organizations that work to recycle the material into new usable materials for a wide variety of industry needs. Working with the Swedish Red Cross, the Swedish Prison and Probation Service is able to provide textile packing material to the shipping industry; additionally, more and more recycling programs like StenaRecycling are beginning to find new ways to use textiles to reach a large audience, being able to create construction materials, stuffing, and new and improved textiles.[80]
Polyester and cotton dominate the textile industry with the synthetic fiber polyester exceeding production of cotton since 2002.[82] Fast fashion has caused a spike in textile waste, with no stop in production, waste management is needed. After clothing is reused until it is beyond usable for its given function, recycling it through a mechanical or chemical process is the next step.[82] One concern with recycling textiles is the loss of "virgin material"; however, chemical recycling can extract the "virgin materials" like protein-based and cellulosic fibers to produce new products.[82] The deterioration of material to provide new products is the process of mechanical recycling.[82]
There are categories or types of recycling that can be done: upcycling, downcycling, closed-loop, and open-loop recycling. Upcycling is the process of using a textile to create something higher quality than the original.[82] Downcycling is using a textile in a way that is less than the original value.[82] Closed-loop recycling is the reuse of one textile over and over again to create the same piece.[82] Open-loop recycling is the process of creating something new with the textile piece.[82] The EU is currently taking initiative to enforce circularity, closed-loop recycling, in the clothing cycle encouraging a less wasteful lifestyle by supporting second-hand and organic clothing pieces, organic in this case being cotton, silk, etc.[83] Even the US in New York City has begun working with natural fibers like bamboo and hemp to make not just clothing but bags as well.[84]
There are many technologies that assist in the recycling of textile products:
- Anaerobic digestion of textile waste – decomposition of organic cotton textile to collect methane and other biogas[82]
- Fermentation of textile waste for ethanol production – cotton fabric provides enhancement of bioethanol production[82]
- Composting of textile waste – cotton waste provides an excellent source of nutrients in compost[82]
- Fiber regeneration from textile waste – recovery of glucose and polyester is possible and allows for reuse of material[82]
- Building/construction material from textile waste – use of textiles in building materials and construction[82]
- Thermal recovery – incineration of remaining textiles to collect usable energy[82]
Design strategies and techniques
According to FutureLearn,
- Zero-waste pattern cutting: This technique eliminates potential textile waste right at the design stage, where the pattern pieces are strategically laid like a jigsaw puzzle onto a precisely measured piece of fabric.
- Minimal seam construction: This technique allows faster manufacturing time by lessening the number of seams that are necessary to stitch a garment.
- Design for disassembly (DfD): The main intention of this strategy involves designing a product in such a way that it can be easily taken apart at the end of its lifespan and this allows the use of fewer materials.
- Craft preservation: This technique combines and incorporates ancestral craft techniques into modern designs and in a way it ensures preservation of traditional craftsmanship through innovation.
- Pull factor framework: Brands such as better source needed]
Technology
Fast fashion brands like
Companies are helping support the circular system in fashion production and consumer behavior by renting out clothes to customers with recycled or reuse items. New York & Company Closet and American Eagle Style Drop are examples of rental services that can be offered to customers when subscribed to the program.[88] Tulerie, a smartphone application offers borrowing, renting, or sharing of clothes in local communities across the globe; users have the opportunity to profit by renting clothes as well.[88]
Overconsumption
In contrast to modern overconsumption, fast fashion traces its roots to World War II austerity, where high design was merged with utilitarian materials.
Planned obsolescence plays a key role in overconsumption. Based on the study of planned obsolescence in The Economist, fashion is deeply committed to planned obsolescence. Last year's skirts, for example, are designed to be replaced by this year's new models.[91] In this case, fashion goods are purchased even when the old ones are still wearable. The quick response model and new supply chain practices of fast fashion even accelerate the speed of it. In recent years, the fashion cycle has steadily decreased as fast fashion retailers sell clothing that is expected to be disposed of after being worn only a few times.[92]
A 2014 article about fast fashion in Huffington Post pointed out that in order to make the fast moving trend affordable, fast-fashion merchandise is typically priced much lower than the competition, operating on a business model of low quality and high volume.[90] Low-quality goods make overconsumption more severe since those products have a shorter life span and would need to be replaced much more often. Furthermore, as both industry and consumers continue to embrace fast fashion, the volume of goods to be disposed of or recycled has increased substantially. However, most fast-fashion goods do not have the inherent quality to be considered as collectables for vintage or historic collections.[93]
Labour concerns
Sweatshops
The fashion industry is known as the most labor dependent industry,[94] as one in every six people works in acquiring raw materials and manufacturing clothing. There is an increasing concern for sweatshops as more fast fashion stores are lowering their prices and trends are fluctuating more frequently. Brands and store companies that use sweatshops are GAP, H&M, Zara, Abercrombie and Fitch and plenty of others.[citation needed]
In particular, H&M has faced controversial issues and backlash regarding their sweatshops in Asian countries.
Nike has received backlash over its use of sweatshops. Bangladesh – a country known for its cheap labor, is home to four million garment production workers in over 5000 factories, of which 85% are women.[96] Many of these factories do not have proper working conditions for essential workers. In 2013 a group of garment workers protested in Bangladesh over the poor quality of the factory building. In 2013 in Dhaka District, Bangladesh, the Rana Plaza factory building collapsed and killed over 1,000 workers. In addition to a structurally unsound building, the employees were overworked. Bangladesh has the lowest minimum wage of all countries exporting apparel.[97]
Women and export processing zones
The International Labour Organization defines
Design legislation and lawsuits
United States
H.R. 5055
H.R. 5055, or
H.R. 2033
The Design Piracy Prohibition Act was reintroduced as H.R. 2033 during the first session of the 110th Congress on April 25, 2007.[105] It had goals similar to H.R. 5055, as the bill proposed to protect certain types of apparel design through copyright protection of fashion design. The bill would grant fashion designs a three-year term of protection, based on registration with the U.S. Copyright Office. The fines of copyright infringement would continue to be $250,000 total or $5 per copied merchandise.[105]
Lawsuits
As of 2007,
See also
- Impact of fast fashion in China
- The True Cost
- Cost per wear
- Slow fashion
- Digital fashion
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Further reading
- MacKinnon, J.B. (28 May 2021). "What would happen if the world stopped shopping?". Fast Company. Retrieved 4 July 2021.