Pistachio
Pistacia vera | |
---|---|
Roasted | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Sapindales |
Family: | Anacardiaceae |
Genus: | Pistacia |
Species: | P. vera
|
Binomial name | |
Pistacia vera |
The pistachio (/pɪˈstɑːʃi.oʊ, -ˈstæʃ-/ pih-STAH-shee-oh, -STASH-;[2] Pistacia vera), a member of the cashew family, is a small tree originating in Persia. The tree produces seeds that are widely consumed as food. The word can be countable or uncountable, meaning its plural is with or without an 's'.[3]
In 2022, world production of pistachios was one million tonnes, with the United States, Iran, and Turkey combined accounting for 88% of the total.
Description
The tree grows up to 10 metres (33 feet) tall. It has
The fruit is a
Each mature pistachio tree averages around 50 kilograms (110 pounds) of seeds, or around 50,000, every two years.[5]
Etymology
Pistachio is from late Middle English pistace, from Old French, superseded in the 16th century by forms from Italian pistacchio, via Latin from Greek πιστάκιον pistákion, and from Middle Persian pistakē.[6]
Distribution and habitat
The tree originates from an area that includes Iran.
Pistachio is a desert plant and is highly tolerant of saline soil. It has been reported to grow well when irrigated with water having 3,000–4,000 ppm of soluble salts.[7] Pistachio trees are fairly hardy in the right conditions and can survive temperatures ranging between −10 °C (14 °F) in winter and 48 °C (118 °F) in summer. They need a sunny position and well-drained soil. Pistachio trees do poorly in conditions of high humidity and are susceptible to root rot in winter if they get too much water and the soil is not sufficiently free-draining. Long, hot summers are required for proper ripening of the fruit.[citation needed]
Cultivation
The pistachio tree may live up to 300 years.[8] The trees are planted in orchards, and take around 7 to 10 years to reach significant production. Production is alternate-bearing or biennial-bearing, meaning the harvest is heavier in alternate years. Peak production is reached around 20 years. Trees are usually pruned to size to make the harvest easier. One male tree produces enough pollen for 8 to 12 drupe-bearing females. Harvesting in the United States and in Greece is often accomplished using equipment to shake the drupes off the tree. After hulling and drying, pistachios are sorted according to open-mouth and closed-mouth shells, then roasted or processed by special machines to produce pistachio kernels.[citation needed]
History
The pistachio tree is native to regions of Central Asia, including present-day
Pistachio trees were introduced from Asia to Europe in the first century AD by the Romans. They are cultivated across Southern Europe and North Africa.[16]
It appears in
The early sixth-century manuscript De observatione ciborum (On the Observance of Foods) by Anthimus implies that pistacia remained well known in Europe in late antiquity.[citation needed]
An article on pistachio tree cultivation was brought down in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work, Book on Agriculture.[20]
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were said to have contained pistachio trees during the reign of King Marduk-apla-iddina II about 700 BCE.[13]
In the 19th century, the pistachio was cultivated commercially in parts of the English-speaking world, such as Australia and in the US in New Mexico[7] and California, where it was introduced in 1854 as a garden tree.[21]
In 1904 and 1905,
In 1969 and 1971, changes to the tax code in the United States eliminated
By 2008, U.S. pistachio production rivaled that of Iran. Drought and unusually cold weather in Iran led to severe declines in production there, while U.S. production was increasing. At that time, pistachios were Iran's #2 export product, after the oil and gas sector.[26]
By 2020, there were 150,000 pistachio farmers in Iran, approximately 70% of whom were small-scale producers using inefficient manual picking and processing techniques. There were 950 far larger U.S. producers, using highly efficient mechanized production techniques. Between them, the U.S. and Iran control 70% of the world export market, with the U.S. in the lead. Worldwide demand exceeds production, so both countries have the ability to sell their production to various export markets.[25]
In 2021, Fresno County, California accounted for about 40% of U.S. pistachio production, with a value of $722 million.[27]
Diseases and environment
Pistachio trees are vulnerable to numerous diseases and infestation by insects such as
Country | Production metric tonnes |
---|---|
United States | 400,070 |
Iran | 241,669 |
Turkey | 239,289 |
China | 81,700 |
Syria | 45,467 |
World | 1,026,803 |
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[33]
|
Production
In 2022, global production of pistachios was one million tonnes, with the United States, Iran, and Turkey together accounting for 88% of the world total (table).
Toxicity
As with other tree seeds, aflatoxin is found in poorly harvested or processed pistachios. Aflatoxins are potent carcinogenic chemicals produced by molds such as Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. The mold contamination may occur from soil or poor storage, and be spread by pests. High levels of mold growth typically appear as gray to black filament-like growth. Eating mold-infected and aflatoxin-contaminated pistachios is unsafe.[34] Aflatoxin contamination is a frequent risk, particularly in warmer and humid environments. Food contaminated with aflatoxins has been found as the cause of frequent outbreaks of acute illnesses in parts of the world. In some cases, such as Kenya, this has led to several deaths.[35]
Pistachio shells typically split naturally prior to harvest, with a hull covering the intact seeds. The hull protects the kernel from invasion by molds and insects, but this hull protection can be damaged in the orchard by poor orchard management practices, by birds, or after harvest, which makes exposure to contamination much easier. Some pistachios undergo so-called "early split", wherein both the hull and the shell split. Damage or early splits can lead to aflatoxin contamination.[36] In some cases, a harvest may be treated to keep contamination below strict food safety thresholds; in other cases, an entire batch of pistachios must be destroyed because of aflatoxin contamination.
Like other members of the family Anacardiaceae (which includes poison ivy, sumac, mango, and cashew), pistachios contain urushiol, an irritant that can cause allergic reactions.[37]
Large quantities of pistachios are self-heating in the presence of moisture due to their high oil content in addition to naturally occurring
Uses
The kernels are often eaten whole, either fresh or roasted and
The shell of the pistachio is naturally a beige color, but it may be dyed red or green in commercial pistachios. Originally, dye was applied to hide stains on the shells caused when the nuts were picked by hand.[45] In the 21st century, most pistachios are harvested by machine and the shells remain unstained.[45]
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
---|---|
Energy | 2,351 kJ (562 kcal) |
27.51 g | |
Sugars | 7.66 g |
Dietary fiber | 10.3 g |
45.39 g | |
Saturated | 5.556 g |
Monounsaturated | 23.820 g |
Polyunsaturated | 13.744 g |
20.27 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 8% 1.300 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 10% 0.52 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 100% 1.700 mg |
Folate (B9) | 13% 51 μg |
Vitamin C | 6% 5.6 mg |
Vitamin D | 0% 0 μg |
Vitamin E | 15% 2.3 mg |
Vitamin K | 11% 13.2 μg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 8% 105 mg |
Iron | 22% 3.92 mg |
Magnesium | 29% 121 mg |
Manganese | 52% 1.2 mg |
Phosphorus | 39% 490 mg |
Potassium | 34% 1025 mg |
Zinc | 20% 2.2 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 4 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[46] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[47] |
Nutrition
Raw pistachios are 4% water, 45% fat, 28%
The fat profile of raw pistachios consists of
Research and health effects
In July 2003, the United States
One review found that pistachio consumption lowered
See also
References
- ^ "Pistachio". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 22 March 2020.
- ^ "pistachio". Cambridge Dictionary. CUP. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
- ^ Towards a comprehensive documentation and use of Pistacia genetic diversity in Central and West Asia, North Africa and Europe, Report of the IPGRI Workshop, 14–17 December 1998, Irbid, Jordan – S.Padulosi and A. Hadj-Hassan, editors
- ISBN 978-1856230292.
- ^ "Pistachio". Dictionary.com.
- ^ a b c Esteban Herrera (1997) Growing pistachios in New Mexico, New Mexico State University, Cooperative Extension Service, Circular 532 [1]
- ^ "Pistachio cultivation (translated)". www.infoagro.com. 18 March 2019.
- ISBN 978-0544186316.
These pale green nuts covered with a papery skin grow on a small deciduous tree native to Persia, the area that still produces the best pistachios.
- ^ "Pistacia vera L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
- ^ "Pistachio | Description, Uses, & Nutrition". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
The pistachio tree is believed to be indigenous to Iran.
- S2CID 7346114. Archived from the original(PDF) on 24 February 2019.
Native P. vera forests are located in north eastern part of Iran particularly in Sarakhs region. This native P. vera is the origin of cultivated pistachio trees in Iran [1]. P. mutica is a wild species indigenous to Iran, growing with almond, oak and other forest trees common to most Alpine regions.
- ^ a b c "History and Agriculture of the Pistachio Nut". IRECO. Archived from the original on 8 July 2006. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
- ISBN 978-1405189880.
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- ^ Davidson (1999)Oxford Companion to food, Oxford University Press
- ^ Theophrastus (1916). Enquiry into Plants. Vol. 1. Translated by Sir Arthur Hort. London: William Heinemann. p. 317.
- ^ James Strong, ed. Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, s.v. "Nut".
- Pliny's Natural History, xiii.10.5, xv.22.
- –248 (Article XIV)
- ^ Rieger, Mark (2012). "Pistachio – pistacia vera". Mark's Fruit Crops. University of Georgia. Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
- ISBN 068684310X.; Commissioner of Horticulture of the State of California,Biennial report1905/06, vol. II:392.
- ^ Liberty Hyde Bailey, Cyclopedia of American Agriculture: II.Crops, 1917, s.v."Importance of plant introduction" p. [page needed]
- ^ New York Times. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
- ^ a b Durkin, Andrea (14 April 2020). "Pistachios: The Quirks of Agricultural Trade in a Nutshell". Global Trade. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
- ^ Dahl, Frederick (8 October 2008). "Iran faces U.S. challenge in "pistachio war"". Reuters. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
- ^ Fitchette, Todd (28 October 2022). "Fresno leads nation in almond, pistachio production:The county amassed a record value of just over $8 billion last year". Farm Progress. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
- ^ Bolkan, Hasan (1 March 1984). "Leaf-footed bug implicated in pistachio epicarp lesion". California Agriculture. 38: 16–17.
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- ^ "California Pistachio Industry Threatened By Potentially Devastating Disease". ScienceDaily. 12 January 2004. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
- ^ Keim, Brandon (26 April 2011). "Australia Pistachio Disaster Hints at Agricultural Breakdown". Wired Magazine-Science. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
- ^ Erdbrink, Thomas (18 December 2015). "Scarred Riverbeds and Dead Pistachio Trees in a Parched Iran". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
- ^ "Pistachio production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2024. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
- ^ E. Boutrif (1998). "Prevention of aflatoxin in pistachios" (PDF). FAO, United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^ "Aflatoxins in pistachios" (PDF). European Union. 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
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- ^ "Pistachio Nuts – RF Self-heating / Spontaneous combustion". tis-gdv.de. The German Insurance Association. Retrieved 5 November 2007.
- ^ Ardekani, A. S. H.; Shahedi, M.; Kabir, G. (2009). "Optimizing Formulation of Pistachio Butter Production" (PDF). Journal of Science and Technology of Agriculture and Natural Resources. 13 (47): 49–59. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2011.
- ^ Ardakani; Shahedi, M.; Kabir, G. (2006). Optimizing of the process of pistachio butter production. Acta Horticulturae. Vol. 726. pp. 565–568. Archived from the original on 3 April 2013. Retrieved 4 May 2011.
- ^ Shakerardekani, A.; Karim, R.; Mohd Ghazali, H.; Chin, N. L. (2011). "Effect of roasting conditions on hardness, moisture content and colour of pistachio kernels" (PDF). International Food Research Journal. 18: 704–710.
- ^ Ardakani (2006). The vital role of pistachio processing industries in development of Iran non-oil exports. Acta Horticulturae. Vol. 726. pp. 579–581. Archived from the original on 3 April 2013. Retrieved 4 May 2011.
- ^ Shaker Ardakai, A.; Mir Damadiha, F.; Salehi, F.; Shahedi, M.; Kabir, G. H.; Javan Shah, A.; et al. (2007). "Pistachio Halva Production". Document Number: 29328. Iran Pistachio Research Institute. Archived from the original on 31 December 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2011.
- ^ "Pistachio Salad". RecipeSource. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
- ^ a b Spiegel, Alison (2 February 2015). "Remember Red Pistachios? Here's What Happened To Them". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 16 September 2019. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
- ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- )
- ^ a b c "Pistachio nuts, raw per 100 g". Release SR-28. USDA National Nutrient Database. 2016. Retrieved 20 May 2016.[dead link]
- ^ JSTOR 24137567.
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- ^ Office of Nutritional Products, Labeling and Dietary Supplements (23 July 2003). "Qualified Health Claims: Letter of Enforcement Discretion – Nuts and Coronary Heart Disease (Docket No 02P-0505)". Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. Archived from the original on 17 June 2008. Retrieved 17 June 2008.
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External links
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.