Qom
This article may contain verify the text.(February 2017) ) |
Qom
قم | |
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City | |
کلانشهر قم · Qom Metropolis | |
025 | |
Climate | BWh |
Website | www |
Qom (
At the 2006 census, its population was 957,496 in 241,827 households.[8] The following census in 2011 counted 1,074,036 people in 299,752 households.[9] The 2016 census showed a population of 1,201,158 people in 356,976 households.[1]
Qom is considered holy in
Qom has developed into a lively industrial center owing in part to its proximity to Tehran. It is a regional center for the distribution of
Etymology
Some researchers have considered the word "Kom" (in the ancient name of Komidan (Komiran)) to mean "city" and believe that there is a lexical connection between the words "Komiran", "Shemiran (near Tehran)", "Tehran", "Chamran (in Saveh areas)" and "Iran", and they considered the old name of Qom to be "Komiran" (in the meaning of "Iran city").[12]
Geography
Qom, the capital of Qom province, is located 125 kilometers south of Tehran, on a low plain. The shrine of Fatimeh Masumeh, the sister of
Qom is a focal center of the Shiʿah.[14][15] Since the revolution, the clerical population has risen from around 25,000 to more than 45,000 and the non-clerical population has more than tripled to about 700,000. Substantial sums of money in the form of alms and Islamic taxes flow into Qom to the ten Marja'-e taqlid or "Source to be Followed" that reside there.[16] The number of seminary schools in Qom is now over fifty, and the number of research institutes and libraries somewhere near two hundred and fifty.[16]
Its theological center and the
Climate
Qom has a
The highest recorded temperature was 47 °C (117 °F) on 11 July 2010 and the lowest recorded temperature was −23 °C (−9 °F) on 15 January 2008.
Climate data for Qom (1986–2010, records 1986–2020) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 23.4 (74.1) |
26.5 (79.7) |
35.5 (95.9) |
37.0 (98.6) |
41.8 (107.2) |
45.9 (114.6) |
47.0 (116.6) |
45.6 (114.1) |
42.3 (108.1) |
37.7 (99.9) |
31.0 (87.8) |
22.5 (72.5) |
47.0 (116.6) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 10.2 (50.4) |
13.6 (56.5) |
19.1 (66.4) |
26.0 (78.8) |
31.8 (89.2) |
37.9 (100.2) |
40.3 (104.5) |
39.4 (102.9) |
34.9 (94.8) |
27.7 (81.9) |
18.9 (66.0) |
12.2 (54.0) |
26.0 (78.8) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 4.2 (39.6) |
7.1 (44.8) |
12.0 (53.6) |
18.3 (64.9) |
23.6 (74.5) |
29.1 (84.4) |
31.8 (89.2) |
30.3 (86.5) |
25.2 (77.4) |
19.0 (66.2) |
11.5 (52.7) |
6.1 (43.0) |
18.2 (64.8) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −1.9 (28.6) |
0.6 (33.1) |
5.0 (41.0) |
10.5 (50.9) |
15.4 (59.7) |
20.2 (68.4) |
23.4 (74.1) |
21.2 (70.2) |
15.6 (60.1) |
10.3 (50.5) |
4.1 (39.4) |
−0.1 (31.8) |
10.4 (50.7) |
Record low °C (°F) | −23.0 (−9.4) |
−11.2 (11.8) |
−11.0 (12.2) |
−0.2 (31.6) |
5.4 (41.7) |
8.0 (46.4) |
15.0 (59.0) |
11.8 (53.2) |
6.5 (43.7) |
0.6 (33.1) |
−11.0 (12.2) |
−10.5 (13.1) |
−23.0 (−9.4) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 25.4 (1.00) |
20.5 (0.81) |
27.7 (1.09) |
20.2 (0.80) |
10.4 (0.41) |
2.3 (0.09) |
0.7 (0.03) |
0.3 (0.01) |
0.8 (0.03) |
6.2 (0.24) |
14.3 (0.56) |
19.4 (0.76) |
148.2 (5.83) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 4.4 | 4.1 | 4.2 | 3.9 | 2.0 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 1.8 | 2.6 | 3.2 | 27.2 |
Average snowy days | 3.1 | 1.4 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.9 | 5.8 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
66 | 58 | 48 | 42 | 33 | 24 | 23 | 24 | 26 | 38 | 52 | 66 | 41 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 185.0 | 194.0 | 221.5 | 233.3 | 296.6 | 351.5 | 354.5 | 347.3 | 309.9 | 263.4 | 204.9 | 172.7 | 3,134.6 |
Source: Iran Meteorological Organization (records),[19] (temperatures),[20] (precipitation),[21] (humidity),[22] (days with precipitation and snow),[23] (sunshine)[24] |
History
The present town of Qom in Central Iran dates back to ancient times. Its pre-Islamic history can be partially documented, although the earlier epochs remain unclear. Excavations at
The recently published results of the excavations carried out in 1955 by Iranian archeologists have, however, revived the old thesis of a Seleucid religious building.
The Sasanian epoch offers many archeological findings and remnants, besides the fact that various sources mention Qom. The most interesting building from an archeological point of view is the Qalʿa-ye Doḵtar in Qom itself, which was long thought to have served religious purposes, while more recent research points to an administrative use.[29] The wider surroundings of Qom also contain numerous traces from palaces, religious, military and administrative buildings.[30][full citation needed] Some of these are mentioned by Qomi, who also names many more fire temples in the urban area of present Qom and its region, of which no archeological traces are left although the location of one fire temple can probably be equated with today's Masjed-e Emām in the city.[31] According to Qomi, the most important fire temple of the area stood in the nearby village of Dizijan.[32]
Tāriḵ-e Qom and some other sources also speak of genuine historical figures of the Sasanian epoch in connection with Qom and its region. They shed new light on the time of the seizure of power by the first Sasanian king Ardashir I, who fought his decisive battles near Qom,[33] and the collapse of the Sasanian empire, which is extensively reported by Ebn Aʿṯam Kufi and the Nehāyat al-Erab and names a certain Šērzād as the satrap of the region.[34] The existence of an urban settlement in the Sasanian epoch is furthermore verified by Middle Persian sources (literary sources, inscriptions, and seals) that mention in the time of Shapur I and Kawād I the names Godmān/Gomān and Ērān Win(n)ārd Kawād, both of which could be identified as Qom.[35] Altogether one can assume that Qom functioned as a small administrative unit throughout the whole Sasanian era. Probably the urban structure of the Sasanian settlement of Qom can be compared with the type of city of Ctesiphon (Or. Madāʾen) and consisted of several villages and little towns with Abaraštejān, Mamajjān and Jamkarān as the bigger settlements that were loosely connected by defense installations.[36]
It is difficult to decipher the actual process of the
The first permanent settlement of Arab settlers in Qom took place during the revolts of
The decisive step for the later urban development of Qom occurred when a group of
As the Arabs required a great deal of pasture for their large herds of cattle and were much wealthier than the local Persians, they slowly started to buy land and take over more villages. The decisive step for controlling the area was the elimination of the local Persian noble class that took place after the death of Yazdanfadar in 733.[40] The emigration and the subsequent settlement and building activities led to the fusion of the original six villages on the area of Qom to an urban conglomerate which probably happened within two generations after the first coming of Arabs.[citation needed]
Although a few names of governors and their tax assessments are known from the time after the administrative independence, the death of
In 825–26 a major rebellion against the tax regulations of the caliphate broke out in Qom. It was caused by the refusal of the caliph Al-Ma'mun to lower the yearly tax assessment as he had done in Ray. The revolt was led by an Ashaari named Yahya ibn Emran, maintaining that taxes should not be paid to an unlawful ruler. Yahya was killed by troops sent by the caliph and the citizens were severely punished; the taxes were raised from 2 million to 7 million dirhams. Two years later the taxes were again raised by 700,000 dirham by the Ashaari governor Ali ibn Isa, who was subsequently deposed because he was strongly rejected by the inhabitants of Qom. But in 833 Ali returned to the post of governor (wali) and forcefully collected tax debts that were laid upon him by the caliph. He destroyed parts of Qom and handed over a wanted rebel to caliphal authorities under Al-Moʿtasem. Between 839–42 two contradicting tax assessments were carried out under turbulent circumstances which amounted to a sum of 5 million dirhams. The names of those involved have survived.[42]
The move of a Hadith transmitter from Kufa to Qom, which took place probably in the middle of the 9th century, indicates the increased importance of Qom as a center of Shia learning. At about the same time another military attack on the city occurred in 254/868, when Mofleḥ, the
The first Friday mosque in Qom was built in 878–79 on the site of a fire temple, although there are also confusing reports concerning a possible earlier Friday mosque.[44] In 881–82 Qom was occupied by the Turkish military leader Edgu Tegin (Arabic: Yadkutakin b. Asātakin or Aḏkutakin), who tried to collect the tax arrears for seven years which partially ruined the guarantors (some of whom are known) of these taxes. At about the same time the early orthodox Shias achieved their victory in the town. In 893–94, at the latest, all extremists (ḡolāt) were driven out of town by the leading Shia shaikh of Qom, Aḥmad b. Moḥammed b. Isa Ashaari. Probably one year later the famous Islamic mystic Ḥosayn b. Manṣur Ḥallaj stayed in Qom, where he was arrested.[45]
From 895–96 onwards the history of Qom was connected with a family of Turkish military leaders from the army of the caliph Al-Mu'tadid, including the governor Berun (Birun). In the same year, Berun destroyed a big and probably still active fire temple located on the territory of the evolving city and probably opposite today's sanctuary of Fātimah bint Mūsā. In these unstable political times, Qom was visited by the vizier of Al-Moʿtazed, Obayd-Allah ibn Solayman, and two tax assessments were organized.[46] An administrative peculiarity of Qom was put to an end at about the same time, to wit the independent appointment of judges through the Arab inhabitants of Qom until the time of al-Moktafi, which, together with the dispatch of a joint Arab-Persian delegation to the vizier Ḥamid ibn Abbas indicate the end of the elevated position of the Arabs in Qom. The period of the governor Abbas ibn Amr Ganawi (292–96/904–09) is remarkable for the presence of non-Twelver Shias in Qom and the establishment of the office of the jahbaḏ (financial officer) as the tax broker for the city, which fostered local self-determination.[47]
In 909 Hosayn ibn Hamdan ibn Hamdun was appointed governor of Qom and Kāšān by the caliph Al-Moqtader and had to assist the caliph's army against the Saffarids in Fars. Altogether he stayed in power only for two years before he had to return to Baghdad.[48] In the years 301/913–14 to 315/927 the people of Qom had, besides another tax assessment (meanwhile the eighth), a caliphal intervention that resulted in the appointment of a governor to stabilize the administrative grip over the region. This move caused more unrest and affected the balance of power in an area that was disputed between the powers of the time (Daylamites, Samanids). Beginning in 316/928 Qom fell into the sphere of interest of Daylami warlords and was relieved from the direct authority of the caliph, although it changed hands several times between 928 and 943. The Daylamites brutally exploited the city through harsh taxes. With the firm establishment of Buyids control from 340/951–52 on, the political circumstances were less troubled than before, although the economic situation deteriorated.[49]
No outstanding events are reported for the relatively stable political period until 988–89, but Qom seems to have been isolated inside Persia because of its Shia creed. At the same time, the Fatima sanctuary was enlarged and the number of sayyeds residing in Qom reached a considerable number. In 373/984 Qom and its environs were affected by the revolt of the
The population amounted to 50,000 inhabitants at the most and consisted of
Apart from the Shia mainstream, other Shia sects existed in the city and one can also assume the presence of
The city's topography in the 10th century still reflected the evolutionary merging of the original six villages; these were still separated by fields. The town center was located in the village of Mamajjān, which was connected to other parts of the city on the other side of the river by four bridges. There were about eight squares whose function is not clear and three mosques within the city. There is almost no information about madrasas. The sanctuary must have still been quite small as only two cupolas are mentioned. A bazaar and bathhouses must have existed, too, as well as certain administrative buildings (prison, mint). Five bigger and eight smaller roads indicate good traffic connections, which were supported by at least three or maybe even nine city gates.[53]
Qom was then in a difficult economic and social position. Many houses inside the city as well as bridges and mills were ruined, and the roads and agriculture were suffering from an insecure situation. This has to be attributed to difficult social circumstances and excessive taxation.[54] The water supply seems to have been satisfactory and the Ashaaries seem to have undertaken continuous renovation works on the irrigation channels between 733 and 900. The Ašʿaris were also the proprietors of the water rights, which were safeguarded in the water authority (divān-e āb) that regulated the water shares. The system made the Ašʿaris the wealthiest inhabitants of Qom and stayed in place until 347/958–59 when they were expropriated by the Buyids, which consequently brought about a decline in the whole system of irrigation. Although there were attempts at restoration in 371/981–82, only three of originally twenty-one channels had flowing water which meant enough drinking water was supplied for the population, but the available amount could not have been adequate for agricultural purposes.[55]
Altogether the state of cultivation in Qom seems to have resembled that of the other regions of Persia, although the thirty different crops and plants are only indirectly mentioned in connection with the tax assessments. The soil is reported to have good quality and produced big quantities of food. Little is known about animal husbandry in the region, but the considerable number of fifty-one mills existed, of which a fifth was in decay. Legends speak of mineral deposits and mines of silver, iron, gold and lead, while Kurds seem to have produced salt from a lake nearby (see Qom Lake). The production of chairs, textiles, and saddle equipment indicates craftsmanship.[56]
The city's taxation has to be distinguished between the more proper rule of the
Little is known about the time until the period of
Surprisingly, Qom enjoyed relative prosperity in its economy in the Seljuk period. The rigidly
The following epochs of the
The
In the late 14th century, the city was plundered by
Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
---|---|---|
1986 | 543,139 | — |
1991 | 681,253 | +4.64% |
1996 | 777,677 | +2.68% |
2006 | 959,116 | +2.12% |
2011 | 1,074,036 | +2.29% |
2016 | 1,201,158 | +2.26% |
source:[62] |
The city suffered heavy damage again during the Afghan invasions, resulting in consequent severe economic hardships. Qom further sustained damage during the reign of
The city of Qom began another era of prosperity in the Qajar era. After Russian forces entered Karaj in 1915, many of the inhabitants of Tehran moved to Qom due to reasons of proximity, and the transfer of the capital from Tehran to Qom was even discussed. But the British and Russians defeated prospects of the plan by putting Ahmad Shah Qajar under political pressure.
As a center of religious learning Qom fell into decline for about a century from 1820 to 1920 but had a resurgence when Shaykh
In 1964–65, before his exile from Iran, the
On 19 February 2020, the
Governance
Authority for the city lies with the mayor, who is elected by a municipal board. The municipal board is periodically elected by the city's residents. The municipal central office is located on Saheli Street. The current mayor of Qom is Mohammad Delbari.
Old districts
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Modern districts
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Tourism
Historical and cultural heritage
Iran's Cultural Heritage Organization lists 195 sites of historical and cultural significance in Qom. But the more visited sites of Qom are:
- Shrine of Fatimah al-Masumah
- Jamkaran Mosque
- Azam Mosque
- Imam Hassan Al-Asgari Mosque
- Al-Ghadir Mosque
- Atiq Mosque in Qom
- Qom Bazaar
- Feyzieh Religious School
- Mar'ashi Najafi Library, with over 500,000 handwritten texts and copies.
- Timcheh-ye-Bozorg (Grand Timcheh)
- Paminar School
- Jahangirkhan School
- Fath-Ali Shah Qajar Tomb
- Mohammad Shah Qajar Tomb
- Shah Abbas IITomb
- Shah SafiTomb
- Gonbad Sabz Historical Garden
- Ali Ibn Ja'afar Tomb
- Shah Hamzeh Tomb
- Seyyed Hossein Borujerdi's Historical House
- Yazdan Panah Historical House
- Haji Khan Historical House
- Zand Historical House
- Ruhollah Khomeini's House
- Beyt-on-noor House
- Haj Asgar Khan Historical Bath
- The Minarets Of Risbaf Historical Factory
- Gholi Darvish Historical Hill
- Jamkaran Historical Castle
- 500 year Cypress Tree in Jamkaran
- Sirang Tourism Centre
- Kohne Bazaar Commercial Centre
- Kohne Mosque
Museums
- Astaneh Moqaddaseh Museum (Qom Central Museum)
- Anthropology Museum Of Qom
- The Museum Of Traditional Arts
- The Museum Of Natural History & Wildlife
- The Museum Of Astronomy
Educational institutions
Qom is well known for its many religious seminaries and institutes that offer advanced religious studies, which made this city the largest center for Shia scholarship in the world. There are an estimated 50,000 seminarians in the city coming from 80 countries, including Iraq, Lebanon, Syria and Pakistan. Qom has seminaries for women and some non-Shia students. Most of the seminaries teach their students modern social sciences and Western thought as well as traditional religious studies.[65]
Hawzah 'Ilmiyya Qom (Qom Seminary)
The Hawzah (a short form of al-Hawzah al-Ilmiyya), which presently consists of over 200 education and research centres and organisations, catering for over 40,000 scholars and students from over 80 List of sovereign states. The modern
Universities and seminaries
- University of Qom
- Mofid University
- Qom University of Medical Sciences
- Al-Mustafa International University
- Al-Zahra Seminary
- Seyyed Hassan Shirazi Seminary
- Imam Hossein Seminary
- Imam Baghir Seminary
- Imam Mahdi Seminary
- Rasoul A'zam Seminary
- Razavia Seminary
- Satia Seminary
- Imam Khomeini Seminary
- Aba-Salih Seminary
- Al-Mahdi Seminary
- Al-Hadi Seminary
- Haghani Seminary
- Janbazan Seminary
- Resalat Seminary
- Itrat Seminary
- Darb-Astana Seminary
- Seyyed Abdol Aziz Seminary
- Toloo-e-Mehr Educational Institute
- Shahab Danesh University
- Pardis-e-Daneshgah-e-Tehran University
- IRIB University Of Qom
- Qom's Industrial College
- Azad Islami University of Pardisan
- Payam-Nour College of Pardisan
- Ma'sumia University
- Hikmat College
- The University Of Religions & Denominations
- Quran & Hadis University
- Fekr-e-Eslami University
- Ma'aref-e-Islami University
- Computer Research Center of Islamic Sciences
- Qom University of Technology
Fordow uranium enrichment facility
The Fordow uranium enrichment facility is located 20 miles north east of Qom.
Transportation
The city has a number of streets and roadways.
It will be served by Qom International Airport which is under construction.
Notable people
- Hassan-i Sabbah(1050-1124) - Leader of the Assassins and the Nizari Ismaili State
- Gholam Ali Oveissi (1918–1984) – General and The Chief Commander of the Imperial Iranian Armed Forces
- Farrokhroo Parsa (1922–1980) – Physician, educator and parliamentarian
- Parviz Shapour (1924-1999) – Writer
- Naser Kamalian (b. 1931) – Medical scholar
- Nasrollah Soltaninejad (b. 1936) – Wrestler
- Azartash Azarnoush(b. 1937) – Linguist and Scholar
- Bahram Afzali (b. 1938) – Commander of Iranian Navy
- Sadeq Tabatabaei (b. 1943) – politician
- Mohammad Reza Nasehi (b. 1944) – weightlifter
- Fathali Oveisi (b. 1946) – Actor
- Mostafa Pourmohammadi (b. 1960) – Politician and Prosecutor
- Hamid Reza Noorbakhsh (b. 1965) – Singer
- Majid Abdolhosseini (b. 1972) – Karateka
- Mehdi Khalaji (b. 1973) – Writer, Scholar of Islamic studies and Political analyst
- Javad Razavian (b. 1974) – Actor
- Mohsen Hassanzadeh (b. 1974) – Futsal coach
- Vahid Ghiasi (b. 1975) – Futsal coach
- Alireza Katiraei (b. 1976) – Karateka
- Mohsen Rabbani (b. 1983) – Pole vaulter
- Ali Asghar Hassanzadeh (b. 1987) – Futsal player
- Saeid Taghizadeh (b. 1988) – Futsal player
- Amir Mehdizadeh (b. 1989) – Karateka
- Alireza Vafaei (b. 1989) – Futsal player
- Abolghasem Orouji (b. 1989) – Futsal player
- Hamid Naderi Yeganeh (b. 1990) – Mathematical artist
- Mehdi Hosseini (b. 1993) – Football player
- Elnaz Ghasemi (b. 1996) – Handball player
- Alireza Nejati (b. 1998) – Wrestler
Twin towns
Qom is
Gallery
-
Qom Mosque
-
Young Water Park
-
Shrine of Fatimah Masumah
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The Hashemi park of Qom in autumn
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Alavi park
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Bonyadi Park
See also
- Timeline of Qom
- Fatima al-Masumeh Shrine
- Iranian architecture
- University of Qom
- Qom Seminary
- Qom rug
- Pardisan City
References
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- ^ "Major Agglomerations of the World – Population Statistics and Maps". citypopulation.de. Archived from the original on 13 September 2018. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
- ^ Habibi, Hassan (21 June 1369). "Approval of the organization and chain of citizenship of the elements and units of the national divisions of Tehran province centered on the city of Tehran". Islamic Parliament Research Center (in Persian). Ministry of Interior, Political-Defense Commission of the Government Board. Archived from the original on 30 November 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
- ^ The metropolises of Iran amar.org.ir Retrieved 19 Oct 2018
- ^ The largest cities in Iran worldatlas.com Retrieved 21 Oct 2018
- ^ The province Qom yjc.ir Retrieved 21 Oct 2018
- ^ "Census of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1385 (2006)". AMAR (in Persian). The Statistical Center of Iran. p. 25. Archived from the original (Excel) on 20 September 2011. Retrieved 25 September 2022.
- ^ "Census of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1390 (2011)". Syracuse University (in Persian). The Statistical Center of Iran. p. 25. Archived from the original (Excel) on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2022.
- ^ The biography of Hazrat Ma'sumeh tasnimnews.com Retrieved 4 Oct 2018
- ^ Alex Shams (6 December 2018), "On Persian pilgrimages, Pakistanis and Indians reconnect with Iran", Dawn News. Retrieved 9 March 2019.
- ^ "💠 نظری به گذشته تاریخی قم | بنیاد قم پژوهی". Retrieved 10 April 2024.
- ^ "Census of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1385 (2006)" (Excel). Statistical Center of Iran. Archived from the original on 20 September 2011.
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- ^ Qom should be the capital of Shia world aghigh.ir Retrieved 10 Oct 2018
- ^ a b Christopher de Bellaigue, The Struggle for Iran, New York Review of Books, 2007, p. 24
- ^ When does the history of the holy shrine of Lady Ma'sumah start from? islamquest.net Retrieved 10 Oct 2018
- ^ The role of Qom and Hazrat Ma'sumah's court in the appearance of Islamic republic iqna.ir Retrieved 10 Oct 2018
- ^
- "Highest record temperature in Ghom by Month 1986–2010". Iran Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
- "Lowest record temperature in Ghom by Month 1986–2010". Iran Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
- ^ *"Average Maximum temperature in Ghom by Month 1986–2010". Iran Meteorological Organization. Archived from the original on 6 September 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
- "Average Mean Daily temperature in Ghom by Month 1986–2010". Iran Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
- "Average Minimum temperature in Ghom by Month 1986–2010". Iran Meteorological Organization. Archived from the original on 6 September 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
- ^ "Monthly Total Precipitation in Ghom by Month 1986–2010". Iran Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
- ^ "Average relative humidity in Ghom by Month 1986–2010". Iran Meteorological Organization. Archived from the original on 16 September 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
- ^ *"No. of days with precipitation equal to or greater than 1 mm in Ghom by Month 1986–2010". Iran Meteorological Organization. Archived from the original on 22 August 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
- "No. of days with snow or sleet in Ghom by Month 1986–2010". Iran Meteorological Organization. Archived from the original on 26 August 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
- ^ "Monthly total sunshine hours in Ghom by Month 1986–2010". Iran Meteorological Organization. Archived from the original on 6 September 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
- ^ Kleiss, 1973, p. 181; idem, 1981, pp. 66–67; idem, 1985, pp. 173–79
- ^ Hakemi, pp. 16, 22, 26, 28, 35, 39
- ^ Ghirshman, 1962, pl. 52; Hakemi, pp. 13–14 and pl. 3
- ^ Qomi, pp. 65, 82, 84–86
- ^ Schippmann, pp. 416–21
- ^ for a summary, see Drechsler, pp. 44–46
- ^ Qomi, pp. 22–23, 32, 37, 61, 62, 69–71, 74, 77, 82, 90, 137–38
- ^ Qomi, pp. 88–89
- ^ Qomi, pp. 70–71; Nehāyat al-erab, p. 179; Widengren, pp. 271, 743–45
- ^ Ebn Aʿṯam, I, p. 201, II, pp. 31, 33, 58/59; Nehāyat al-Erab, pp. 383, 388
- ^ Frye, 1956, p. 320; idem, 1975, p. 11; Gyselen, pp. 28, 73–74
- ^ Drechsler, pp. 57–60
- ^ Balāḏori, pp. 312–14; Drechsler, pp. 69–74
- ^ Qomi, p. 38; Ṭabari, II, p. 992
- ^ Qomi, pp. 242–50, 258–65, 284–91; Drechsler, pp. 78–91
- ^ Qomi, pp. 48–49, 242, 244, 250, 253–57, 260, 262–63
- ^ Qomi, pp. 31, 101–02, 164, 213–14; Ebn Bābuya, II, p. 271; Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi 1976, I, p. 18; Drechsler, pp. 124–31
- ^ Qomi, pp. 35, 102–04, 156–57, 163–64; Ṭabari, III, pp. 1092–93, 1102, 1106, 1111; Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi, 1983, p. 166; Drechsler, pp. 132–39
- ^ Najāši, p. 12, 262; Qomi, pp. 35, 156–57, 163–64, 211–12, 215; Ṭabari, III, p. 1697; Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi, 1983, p. 166; Drechsler, pp. 140–45
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Bibliography
- Balāḏori
- Drechsler
- Frye
- Ghirshman
- Hakemi
- Kleiss
- Modarresi Ṭabāṭabāʾi
- Najāši
- Qomi
- Schippmann
External links
- Irani, Hamed (2 November 2005). "Qom Concerned over New Intelligence Appointments". ROOZ (ROOZ Online). Archived from the original on 25 March 2006. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
- Sādeq Sabā, Visiting Iran's ayatollahs at Qom, Tuesday, 17 June 2008, BBC