Reception of Islam in Early Modern Europe

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Left image: The School of Athens by Raphael, a symbol of Renaissance knowledge, includes Muslim Averroes in its community of learned men.
Right image: Averroes and Pythagoras (detail).

There was

Much of Europe's contact with the Islamic world was through

There was limited direct interaction between the two cultures even though there was substantial trade between Europe and the Middle East at this time: merchants would often use intermediaries,^[1] a practice that had been common since the time of the Roman Empire. Historians have noted that even during the 12th and 14th centuries the two parties had little interest in learning about each other.^[2]

The history of the Ottoman Empire is intimately connected to the history of Renaissance and Early Modern Europe. The European Renaissance was significantly triggered by the

Iberian Peninsula

The

Alhambra was known ^[by whom?] as one of the greatest achievements of urban art in the Muslim world during the time of the Nasrids.^[8] The Court of the Myrtles and the Court of the Lions are the only two portions of the palace to survive to present time.^[9]

While the Treaty of Granada (1491) allowed the new subjects to keep practicing Islam, soon forced conversion was applied. The Granada Moors joined the earlier Iberian Moriscos. Some of them were

Reception of Islam in Early Modern England

The first English convert to Islam mentioned by name is John Nelson.^[10] 16th century writer Richard Hakluyt claimed he was forced to convert, though he mentions in the same story other Englishmen who had converted willingly.^{[citation needed]}

This king had a son which was a ruler in an island called Gerbi, whereunto arrived an English ship called the Green Dragon, of the which was master one M. Blonket, who, having a very unhappy boy on that ship, and understanding that whosoever would turn Turk should be well entertained of the a yeoman of our Queen's guard, whom the king's son had enforced to turn Turk; his name was John Nelson.^[11]

Slavery at the time of the European Renaissance was a socio-economic factor especially around the Mediterranean Sea region. It was accepted and approved for both Muslims and Christians. Most slaves came from warfare, privateering, or the international slave trade. Only some of the Arabian slaves in Europe were Muslims by origin.^[19] Many of the Muslim slaves were baptized before they were sold for the first time and then were given a new Christian name. There were, however, some Muslims who were not baptized and who kept their original names, but if they had children the newborns were immediately baptized. Most Muslim slaves converted to Christianity because there was hard social pressure at the time for them to convert. They also improved their social position by converting to Christianity, such as they would rise from a slave to a serf.^[20]

There were a small percentage of learned Muslim captives who were among the intellectual elite in their original hometowns among the Muslim prisoners and slaves. Captured Muslim scientists, physicians, and copyists were in high demand at slave markets. Learned Muslim captives were held in high regard by the authorities and they were sold for very high prices. They were wanted for the knowledge and advancements the Arabs had made over the Europeans. Copyists of Arabic manuscripts were needed in Spain to translate Arabic texts for the practice of medicine, the study of Arabic philosophy, and because of the popular interest in Europe for the translations of Arabic scientific texts. Learned Muslim captives played a very important role in the spread of Arabic science and philosophy over the Christian world.^[21]

The liberation of Muslim slaves was a state affair and elevated the popular esteem of the sovereign government. Muslim slaves were either freed or exchanged through special legislation and international treaties.^[22]

Examples of learned Muslim captives

One account of a highly esteemed Muslim slave is of Moroccan geographer

Following the first wave of Arabic interest during the

Virgin Mary, in Gentile Bellini's Madonna and Child Enthroned, late 15th century, an example of Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting.
Right image: Prayer rug, Anatolia

, late 15th to early 16th century, with "re-entrant" keyhole motif.

The Muslim

Elizabethan England around 1600.^[36] A portrait was painted of one of the Moorish ambassadors, Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud ben Mohammed Anoun, who had come to promote an Anglo-Moroccan alliance

.

At the Bodleian Library of Oxford University, there were hundreds of Arabic manuscripts, as well as dozens of

geographical works of Ibn Khordadbeh and Ibn Hawqal; .^[37] A Latin translation of two of Ali Qushji's works, the Tract on Arithmetic and Tract on Astronomy, was published by John Greaves in 1650.^[38]

The turban in art and politics

The

Hagar, and Hayreddin Barbarossa appear in these paintings. The tradition of depicting Biblical characters in turbans has continued through to this century, as at least one of the wise men is always depicted with a turban.^[39]

Turban iconography was highly prominent, especially in Renaissance England. While friendly relations were formed between England and the Islamic civilization of the Middle East in the early 16th century, Turkish fashions became popular for the higher classes. During times of interaction with

Elizabeth I of England wore Turkish clothing styles. It was believed that she favored working with the Islamic sultans of Istanbul rather than the Roman Catholic leaders of Europe. These suspicions were heightened when she asked Sultan Murad III and his son Mohammad III for military assistance. Although she never did receive any assistance from the sultans, her relations with the Sultan and his son did not waver.^[40]

Views on Muslim women

Alexander Ross, a writer and controversialist living in the first half of the 17th century, praised the Turks for being “more modest in their conversation generally than we; Men and Women converse not together promiscuously, as among us.”^[41] Ross believed that England could learn a great deal from the Muslims.^[41] During the Renaissance, English women disrespected their husbands because they were free to do what they wanted, which society believed led to a moral deterioration.^{[dubious – discuss][42]} European women also began leaving home to become male-like figures in society. Other European women attacked male chauvinism and defended the status of women by handing out pamphlets. Women rebelled against male religious hierarchy and began to replace men as preachers and pastors.^[43] Christian writers highly admired Muslim women because they were frugal compared to English women, they were respected by their husbands because they did not play “false” with them, and because Muslim women went immediately back to work after giving birth and they still had time to raise their children themselves, unlike English women.^{[44][additional citation(s) needed]}

The Muslim model became an example of the “exotic” and “

Utopian” ideal because it was not possible in European society.^[45] European men sought to reinforce the traditional role of women and wanted their women to adhere to the model of Muslim women as frugal, obedient, wearing modest apparel, and respectful towards their husbands. Muslims and Englishmen differed in various ways, especially in their religious beliefs and militarism, but they did agree with each other on the representation of Muslim women.^[43]

See also

• Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe

References

1. ^ James Chamber, The Devil’s Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe, (Edison: Castle Books, 2003), page 33.
2. ^ Jane I. Smith. "Islam and Christendom," in The Oxford History of Islam. Edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online. http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article. (accessed January 29, 2008), page 1.
3. ^ "Andalusia." The Islamic World: Past and Present. Edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed February 2, 2008).
4. ^ "Granada." The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed February 2, 2008).
5. ^ "Andalusia."
6. ^ David Nicole, El Cid and the Reconquista: 1050-1492, (Great Britain: Osprey Publishing Limited, 1988), page 8.
7. ^ David Nicole, page 39.
8. ^ "Granada."
9. ^ "Alhambra." The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed February 2, 2008).
10. ^ [/religion/religions/islam/history/uk_1.shtml BBC]
11. ^ Voyager's Tales, 3, The voyage made to Tripolis in Barbary,1584, Richard Haklyut
12. ^ Rees Davies, British Slaves on the Barbary Coast, BBC, 1 July 2003
13. ^ History of Lundy
14. ISBN 978-1-84603-240-0
    . Retrieved 2011-04-15.
15. ^ de Bruxelles, Simon (February 28, 2007). "Pirates who got away with it". Study of sails on pirate ships. London. Retrieved 2007-11-25.
16. ISBN 978-0-19-820171-7
    . Retrieved 2007-11-25.
17. ^ Everett Jenkins, Jr., The Muslim Diaspora: a Comprehensive Reference to the Spread of Islam in Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Americas. (Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company, Inc., 2000), 2:7.
18. ^ Isa Blumi. “Kosovo.” The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online. http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article. (accessed January 29, 2008)
19. ^ P.S. Konningsveld, P.S., page15.
20. ^ P.S. Konningsveld, page16.
21. ^ ^{a b} P.S. Konningsveld, page10.
22. ^ P.S. Konningsveld, page6.
23. ^ ^{a b} "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast".
24. ^ "Jefferson Versus the Muslim Pirates by Christopher Hitchens, City Journal Spring 2007".
25. ^ ^{a b c d} Ecouen Museum exhibit
26. ^ Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe? by George Saliba Columbia University
27. ^ Arthur Augustus Tilley, The Literature of the French Renaissance, p. 87
28. ^ The Penny cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge p.418 [1]
29. ISBN 90-04-09888-7
    .
30. ISBN 0-87220-871-0
    .
31. ISBN 0-7391-1989-3.[2]
32. ^ Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature, Al-Rashid House for Publication.
33. ISBN 0-7591-0190-6
    .
34. ^ Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [369].
35. ^ Martin Wainwright, Desert island scripts, The Guardian, 22 March 2003.
36. Shakespeare’s Globe Theatre (cf. Mayor of London (2006), Muslims in London
    , pp. 14-15, Greater London Authority)
37. ISBN 90-04-09888-7
    .
38. ISBN 90-04-09888-7
    , p. 162
39. ^ Nabil I. Matar, “Renaissance England and the Turban,” Images of the Other: Europe and the Muslim World Before 1700 Ed. David Blanks, (Cairo: Cairo Press, 1997).
40. ^ Nabil I. Matar, “Renaissance England and the Turban.”
41. ^ ^{a b} Nabil Matar, “The Representation of Muslim Women in Renaissance England,” page 51.
42. ^ Nabil Matar, “The Representation of Muslim Women in Renaissance England,” page 52.
43. ^ ^{a b} Nabil Matar, “The Representation of Muslim Women in Renaissance England,” page 61.
44. ^ Nabil Matar, “The Representation of Muslim Women in Renaissance England,” page 53 and 54.
45. ^ Nabil Matar, “The Representation of Muslim Women in Renaissance England,” page 60.^{[unreliable source?]}