Sam Manekshaw
General Officer Commanding, IV Corps | |
---|---|
In office 2 December 1962 – 4 December 1963 | |
Preceded by | Lt Gen Brij Mohan Kaul |
Succeeded by | Lt Gen Manmohan Khanna |
Personal details | |
Born | Sam Hormusji Framji Jamshedji Manekshaw 3 April 1914 British India India |
Branch/service | British Indian Army Indian Army |
Years of service | 1934 – 2008[a] |
Rank | Field Marshal |
Unit | 12th Frontier Force Regiment 8th Gorkha Rifles |
Commands | |
Battles/wars |
|
Awards | |
Service number | IC-14 |
Manekshaw joined the first intake of the
After completing the higher command course at the
Manekshaw became the seventh chief of army staff in 1969. Under his command, Indian forces conducted victorious campaigns against Pakistan in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, which led to the creation of Bangladesh in December 1971. He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan and the Padma Bhushan, the second and third highest civilian awards of India, respectively.
Early life and family
Sam Manekshaw was born on 3 April 1914 in
During World War II, Hormizd had served in the
Education
Manekshaw completed his primary schooling in Punjab, and then joined Sherwood College, Nainital.[8] In 1931, he passed his senior high school examinations with distinction. Manekshaw then asked his father to send him to London to study medicine, but his father refused as he was not old enough. His father was already supporting Sam's elder brothers who were studying engineering in London.[9] Manekshaw instead enrolled at the Hindu Sabha College (now the Hindu College, Amritsar) and graduated in April 1932.[10]
A formal notification for the entrance examination to enrol in the newly established Indian Military Academy (IMA) was issued in the early months of 1932. Examinations were scheduled for June or July.[11] In an act of rebellion against his father's refusal to send him to London, Manekshaw applied for a place and sat for the entrance exams in Delhi. On 1 October 1932, he was one of the fifteen cadets to be selected through an open competition,[c] and placed sixth in the order of merit.[11]
Indian Military Academy
Manekshaw was part of the first batch of cadets at the IMA. Called "The Pioneers", this batch also included
Of the 40 cadets inducted into the IMA, only 22 completed the course; they were commissioned as second lieutenants on 1 February 1935.[13] Some of his batchmates were Dewan Ranjit Rai; Mohan Singh, the founder of the Indian National Army; Melville de Mellow, a famous radio presenter; and two generals of the Pakistani Army, Mirza Hamid Hussain and Habibullah Khan Khattak. Many of Manekshaw's batchmates were captured by Japan during World War II and would fight in the Indian National Army, which mostly drew its troops from Indian prisoners of war in Axis camps.[14] Tikka Khan, who would later join the Pakistani Army during the Partition, was Manekshaw's junior at the IMA by five years and also his boxing partner.[15]
Military career
When Manekshaw was commissioned, it was standard practice for newly commissioned Indian officers to be initially assigned to a British regiment before being sent to an Indian unit. Manekshaw thus joined the 2nd Battalion,
World War II
There was a shortage of qualified officers at the outbreak of the war, officers were thus promoted without having served for the minimum period required for a promotion. Therefore, for the first two years of the conflict, Manekshaw was temporarily appointed to the ranks of captain and major before being promoted to the
Battle of Pagoda Hill
Manekshaw saw action in
This officer was in command of the 'A' Company of his battalion when ordered to counter-attack the Pagoda Hill position, the key hill on the left of the Sittang Bridgehead, which had been captured by the enemy. The counterattack was successful despite 30% casualties, and this was largely due to the excellent leadership and bearing of Captain Manekshaw. This officer was wounded after the position had been captured.[26]
Manekshaw was evacuated from the battlefield by Sher Singh, his
Having recovered from his wounds, Manekshaw attended the eighth staff course at the
Post-independence
Due to the Partition of India in 1947, Manekshaw's unit, the 4th Battalion, 12th Frontier Force Regiment, became part of the Pakistan Army. Manekshaw was therefore reassigned to the 8th Gorkha Rifles.[32][33] Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Pakistan's first Governor General, also considered the founder of that nation, had reportedly asked Manekshaw to join the Pakistani Army, but Manekshaw had refused.[34][35]
At the end of 1947, Manekshaw was posted as the commanding officer of the 3rd Battalion,
On the morning of 27 October, Indian troops were sent to Kashmir to defend Srinagar from the Pakistani forces, who had reached the city's outskirts. Manekshaw's assignment as the commander of 3/5 GR (FF) was cancelled, and he was posted to the MO Directorate. As a consequence of the Kashmir dispute and the
Manekshaw was one of the three army officers who represented India at the 1949 Karachi Conference. The Conference resulted in the
Manekshaw was promoted to the rank of colonel on 4 February 1952,[41][d] and in April was appointed the commander of 167 Infantry Brigade, headquartered at Firozpur.[41] On 9 April 1954, he was appointed the director of military training at Army Headquarters.[42] He was appointed the commandant of the Infantry School at Mhow on 14 January 1955, and also became the colonel of both the 8th Gorkha Rifles and the 61st Cavalry.[43] During his tenure as the commandant of the Infantry School, he discovered that the training manuals were outdated, and was instrumental in revamping them to be consistent with the tactics employed by the Indian Army.[44] He was promoted to the substantive rank of brigadier on 4 February 1957.[45]
General officer
In 1957, he went to the
Manekshaw was promoted to substantive major general on 1 March 1959.[50] On 1 October, he was appointed the Commandant of the Defence Services Staff College, Wellington,[51] where he was caught up in a controversy that almost ended his career. In May 1961, Thimayya resigned as the COAS, and was succeeded by General Pran Nath Thapar. Earlier in the year, Major General Brij Mohan Kaul had been promoted to lieutenant general and appointed the Quarter Master General by Menon. The appointment was made against the recommendation of Thimayya, who resigned as a result. Kaul was made the chief of general staff (CGS), the second highest appointment at Army Headquarters after the COAS. Kaul cultivated a close relationship with Nehru and Menon and became even more powerful than the COAS. This was met with disapproval by senior army officials, including Manekshaw, who argued against the interference of the political leadership in the administration of the army. This led him to be marked as an anti-national.[49]
Kaul sent informers to spy on Manekshaw[52] who, as a result of the information gathered, was charged with sedition, and subjected to a court of inquiry. The charges against him were that he was more loyal to the Queen and the Crown than to India, because he had not removed portraits of the Queen and British military and civilian officers from the College and his office.[53][54] The court, presided over by the general officer commanding-in-chief (GOC-in-C) of Western Command, Lt. Gen. Daulet Singh, exonerated Manekshaw as no evidence against him was found.[55][56] Before a formal 'no case to answer' could be announced, the Sino-Indian War broke out; Manekshaw was not able to participate because of the court proceedings. The Indian Army was defeated in the war, for which Kaul and Menon were held primarily responsible, both were sacked. In November 1962, Nehru asked Manekshaw to take over the command of IV Corps. Manekshaw told Nehru that the court action against him was a conspiracy, and that his promotion had been due for almost eighteen months; Nehru apologised.[49] Shortly after, on 2 December 1962, Manekshaw was promoted to acting lieutenant general and appointed the GOC of IV Corps at Tezpur.[57]
Alleviating low morale
Soon after taking charge, Manekshaw reached the conclusion that poor leadership had been a significant factor in IV Corps' failure in the war with China. He felt the first course of action was to improve the morale of his soldiers. Manekshaw identified the root cause of the low morale to be panicked withdrawals, ordered without allowing the soldiers to fight back. He ordered there to be no more retreats without his written permission.[58] The next task Manekshaw took up was to reorganise the troops in the North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA), where he alleviated the shortages of equipment, accommodation and clothing.[59] Analyst Srinath Raghavan noted that Corps Commander Manekshaw and COAS Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri had delayed moving into the NEFA region until the end of 1963, in order to avoid provoking a new Chinese offensive.[60][61]
Promoted to substantive lieutenant general on 20 July 1963, Manekshaw was appointed an army commander on 5 December, taking command of Western Command as the GOC-in-C.
Nathu La and Cho La clashes
In 1967, five years after the
Chief of army staff
Gen.
In his capacity as the COAS, Manekshaw once visited a battalion of the 8 Gorkha Rifles in July 1969. He asked an orderly if he knew the name of his chief. The orderly replied that he did, and on being asked to name the chief, he said "Sam Bahadur" (lit. "Sam the Brave").[e] This eventually became Manekshaw's nickname.[76] During this period, there were suspicions that Manekshaw would lead a coup and impose martial law. Indira Gandhi had asked him if he intended to coup, Manekshaw had denied.[77] Once, an American diplomat, in the presence of Kenneth Keating, the US ambassador to India, had asked Manekshaw when he was going to stage a coup. Manekshaw reportedly said, "As soon as General Westmoreland takes over your country".[78]
Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was sparked by the
During a cabinet meeting towards the end of April, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi asked Manekshaw if he was prepared to go to war with Pakistan. He replied that most of his armoured and infantry divisions were deployed elsewhere, only twelve of his tanks were combat-ready, and they would be competing for rail carriages with the grain harvest. He also pointed out that the Himalayan passes would soon open up with the forthcoming monsoon, which would result in heavy flooding.[80] After the cabinet had left the room, Manekshaw offered to resign; Gandhi declined and instead sought his advice. He said he could guarantee victory if she would allow him to handle the conflict on his own terms, and set a date for its initiation; Gandhi agreed.[81]
Following the strategy planned by Manekshaw, the army launched several preparatory operations in East Pakistan, including training and equipping the
The war started officially on 3 December 1971, when Pakistani aircraft bombed
As the war progressed, India captured most of the strategic positions and isolated the Pakistani forces, who started to surrender or withdraw.
"Indian forces have surrounded you. Your Air Force is destroyed. You have no hope of any help from them. Chittagong, Chalna and Mangla ports are blocked. Nobody can reach you from the sea. Your fate is sealed. The Mukti Bahini and the people are all prepared to take revenge for the atrocities and cruelties you have committed...Why waste lives? Don't you want to go home and be with your children? Do not lose time; there is no disgrace in laying down your arms to a soldier. We will give you the treatment befitting a soldier".
— Manekshaw's first radio message to the Pakistani troops on 9 December 1971, [89]
Manekshaw addressed the Pakistani troops by radio broadcast on 9, 11 and 15 December, assuring them that they would receive honourable treatment from the Indian troops if they surrendered. The last two broadcasts were delivered as replies to messages from the Pakistani commanders Maj. Gen.
On 11 December, Ali messaged the United Nations requesting a ceasefire, but it was not authorised by
When the prime minister asked Manekshaw to go to Dhaka and accept the surrender of Pakistani forces, he declined, saying that the honour should go to the GOC-in-C Eastern Command, Lt. Gen. Jagjit Singh Aurora.[16] Concerned about maintaining discipline in the aftermath of the conflict, Manekshaw issued strict instructions forbidding looting and rape and stressed the need to respect and stay away from women. As a result, according to Singh, cases of looting and rape were negligible.[91] While addressing his troops on the matter, Manekshaw was quoted as saying: "When you see a Begum (Muslim woman), keep your hands in your pockets, and think of Sam."[91]
The war lasted 12 days and saw 93,000 Pakistani soldiers taken prisoner. It ended with the unconditional surrender of East Pakistan and resulted in the creation of Bangladesh.
Manekshaw was India's official representative for the negotiations held on 28 November 1972 to demarcate the
Promotion to field marshal
After the war, Indira Gandhi decided to promote Manekshaw to the rank of field marshal and appoint him as the chief of defence staff (CDS). However, after several objections from the commanders of the navy and the air force, the appointment was dropped. Because Manekshaw was from the army, there were concerns that the comparatively smaller forces of the navy and air force would be neglected. Moreover, the bureaucrats felt that the appointment might reduce their influence over defence issues.[103] Though Manekshaw was to retire in June 1972, his term was extended by a period of six months, and "in recognition of outstanding services to the Armed Forces and the nation," he was promoted to the rank of field marshal on 1 January 1973.[104] The first Indian Army officer to be so promoted, he was formally conferred with the rank in a ceremony held at the Rashtrapati Bhavan (President's Residence) on 3 January.[105]
Honours and post-retirement
For his service to India, the
In May 2007,
Although Manekshaw was conferred the rank of field marshal in 1973, it was reported that he was not given the complete allowances he was entitled to. He did not receive these until 2007, when President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam met him in Wellington, and presented him with a cheque for ₹1.3 crore (equivalent to ₹3.9 crore or US$490,000 in 2023) — his arrears of pay for over 30 years.[110][111] Manekshaw was critical of politicians and civilian bureaucrats, and frequently mocked them, asking for example, "whether those of our political masters who have been put in charge of the defence of the country can distinguish a mortar from a motor; a gun from a howitzer; a guerrilla from a gorilla – although a great many in the past have resembled the latter.”[112]
Manekshaw visited hospitalised soldiers during the Kargil War and was cited by COAS Ved Prakash Malik, the commander during the war, as his icon.[113]
Personal life and death
Manekshaw married Silloo Bode on 22 April 1939 in
Character
Manekshaw was charismatic and known to be capable of charm.[120][121] He was often described as a gentleman.[122] Like others of his generation, his background in the British army gave him a fondness for some English habits, such as drinking whiskey and wearing his handlebar moustache.[123] His background as a Parsi is sometimes attributed as a factor in his ambition and success.[80] He commanded great loyalty from his troops, particularly the Gorkhas, due to his reputation for personal bravery, fairness and his avoidance of punishments.[124] He came into conflict with politicians, however, because he stood up to their often unreasonable or unethical demands. They also disliked his popularity as they feared the possibility of a military coup. He dealt with politicians' demands through sarcasm, which however was recognised by figures such as Indira Gandhi.[125][3] Manekshaw also did not hesitate from advocating for better strategies than those developed by the civilian establishment, a trait rarely found in the military brass today, according to Admiral Arun Prakash.[126][127]
Legacy and assessment
The Manekshaw Centre in the
Manekshaw has been portrayed in film and fiction. Vicky Kaushal played the role of Manekshaw in the 2023 biopic Sam Bahadur.[137] He is also featured conversing with his Pakistani adversary and former Burma war colleague Tiger Niazi in Salman Rushdie's novel Midnight's Children, in the chapter entitled "Sam and the Tiger".[138]
Soldiers' pay
In 1970, the Armed Forces and the Army in particular had the opportunity for the first time to get their pay determined by the Pay Commission, which set the pay levels for all other government employees. Armed Forces personnel had not been considered for the 1st and 2nd Pay Commissions but were to be considered for the 3rd Pay Commission.[139] Manekshaw convinced the government to apply the 3rd Pay Commission's recommendations for military personnel and set pay scales for them proportionate to their service conditions (termed hazard pay), a practice which continues to this day.[140]
Strategy and doctrine
Manekshaw's strategies during the 1971 war have been considered by analysts to be the precursor to the Indian Cold Start military doctrine, which calls for integrated offensive attacks.[141] Formulated along with his deputies Aurora and Singh, Manekshaw's shock and awe tactic of deploying IV Corps, which was geographically disadvantaged, contributed significantly to the military victory.[142] Analysts consider Manekshaw and Aurora to have created a Blitzkrieg style of warfare which was even more rapid.[143][144][145]
Defence analyst Robert M. Citino noted that the speed of the 1971 campaign had been impressive, but it had taken too much time to mobilise the units involved; its logistics had been rather crude; and it could have run into problems if there had been an air force in East Pakistan. Manekshaw said the following about the campaign: "To say that it was something like what Rommel did would be ridiculous".[146]
General André Beaufre, a French military theorist, had been invited by Manekshaw to analyse the 1971 war. Beaufre had previously observed the Battles of Chumb and Basantar from the Pakistani side.[147][148] Beaufre concluded that the Indian operations on the Eastern Front were maneuver warfare but the operations in and around the Shakargarh bulge had been too slow.[149][150][151]
On 12 October 1966, while on a flight from Delhi to
Procurement
Manekshaw was an advocate for a strong domestic
Special operations
After being convinced by Brigadier Bhawani Singh on the need for special operations, Manekshaw approved the plans for the Chachro Raid, which the brigadier had drawn up himself.[158] The raid resulted in the capture of 13,000 square kilometres (5,000 sq mi) of Pakistani territory up to Umerkot in Sindh province, and is considered by analysts to be the most successful operation by an Indian special operations unit.[159][160]
Counter insurgency
While responding to the insurgency in Mizoram in 1966, Manekshaw implemented the policy of merging small villages (termed spatialisation) as a counter insurgency tool. The intended effect was to prevent insurgents from hiding in sparsely populated villages, and to enable safer civilian and military operations. By forcing insurgents to operate out of uninhabited areas, they were denied access to food and supplies; the army also had to patrol a smaller area and did not have to engage in high casualty urban warfare as a result of the policy.[161][162]
See also
- Marshal of the Indian Air Force Arjan Singh
- Field Marshal K.M. Cariappa
Notes
- ^ Manekshaw retired from active service in 1973,[2] however, Indian military five-star rank officers hold their rank for life, and are considered to be serving officers until their deaths.
- ^ Hormizd was his Iranian name, for communicating with Indians and Britishers he used the name Hormusji.
- ^ There were 40 vacancies, of which 15 were filled through an open competition, 15 from the ranks of the army and the remaining 10 from the princely state forces.[11]
- ^ In the decade after Independence, due to shortages of qualified officers in the senior ranks, it was common for officers to be promoted before they had completed the usual requisite years of service to advance in rank. Manekshaw received a further 4 year extension in his substantive rank of colonel in 1956 as a result.
- ^ Bahadur was an honorific title bestowed upon princes and victorious military commanders by Mughal emperors, and later by their British successors.
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Bibliography
Books
- Indian Army (1945), List for October 1945 (Part I), Government of India
- Indian Army (1947), List Special Edition for August 1947, Government of India
- Sharma, Satinder (2007), Services Chiefs of India, Northern Book Centre, ISBN 978-8-1721-1162-5
- ISBN 978-0-7619-3322-9
- ISBN 978-8-1706-2161-4
News articles
- "Obituary: Sam Manekshaw". The Economist. No. 5 (July 2008). 3 July 2008. p. 107. Archived from the original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved 7 July 2008.
- Mehta, Ashok K. (27 January 2003). "Play It Again, Sam: A Tribute to the Man Whose Wit Was as Astounding as His Military Skill". Outlook. Archived from the original on 19 August 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
- Pandya, Haresh (30 June 2008). "Sam H.F.J. Manekshaw Dies at 94; Key to India's Victory in 1971 War". from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- Saighal, Vinod (30 June 2008). "Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw". [The Guardian]]. Archived from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
External links
- Sam Manekshaw at the Indian Army's website
- Media related to Sam Manekshaw at Wikimedia Commons
- Lecture and Q&A by Sam Manekshaw at the DSSC , hosted by the Indian Defence Review