Sika deer
Sika deer | |
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Male (stag) in Kadzidłowo, Poland | |
Female (hind) in the Wildpark Alte Fasanerie, Hanau, Germany | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Artiodactyla |
Family: | Cervidae |
Subfamily: | Cervinae |
Genus: | Cervus |
Species: | C. nippon
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Binomial name | |
Cervus nippon Temminck, 1838
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Subspecies | |
See text | |
The sika deer (Cervus nippon), also known as the Northern spotted deer or the Japanese deer, is a
Etymology
Its name comes from shika (鹿), the Japanese word for "deer". In Japan, the species is known as the nihonjika (ニホンジカ (日本鹿), "Japan deer"). In Chinese, it is known as 梅花鹿; méihuālù; 'plum blossom deer' due to the spots resembling
Taxonomy
The sika deer is a member of the genus
DNA evidence indicates that the species formerly placed under Cervus are not as closely related as once thought, resulting in the creation of several new genera. The ancestor of all Cervus species probably originated in Central Asia and possibly resembled the sika deer.[4] Members of this genus can crossbreed and produce hybrids in areas where they coexist. This includes sika and wapiti; in the Scottish Highlands, the interbreeding of native Scottish red deer with introduced sika has been deemed a serious threat to the gene pool of the Scottish deer.[5] However, by comparison, an invasive sika deer in the United States cannot reproduce with a North American white-tailed, mule or black-tailed deer, all of which are placed in a separate genus, Odocoileus.
Subspecies
Serious genetic pollution has occurred in many populations, especially in China, so the status of many subspecies remains unclear.[1] The status of C. n. hortulorum is particularly uncertain and might in fact be of mixed origin, hence it is not listed here.
- C. n. aplodontus, northern Honshu
- C. n. grassianus, Shanxi, China
- C. n. keramae, Kerama Islands of the Ryukyu Islands, Japan
- C. n. kopschi, southern China
- C. n. mandarinus, northern and northeastern China
- C. n. mantchuricus, northeastern China, Korea, and Russian Far East
- C. n. nippon (type species), southern Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu[citation needed]
- C. n. pseudaxis, northern Vietnam
- C. n. pulchellus, Tsushima Island
- C. n. sichuanicus, western China
- C. n. sintikuensis, Taiwan[citation needed]
- C. n. soloensis, Southern Jolo island; of unknown subspecies origin, probably extinct)[6]
- C. n. taiouanus, Taiwan
- C. n. yakushimae, Yakushima, Japan
- C. n. yesoensis, Hokkaido, Japan
Description
The sika deer is one of the few deer species that does not lose its spots upon reaching maturity. Spot patterns vary with region. The mainland subspecies have larger and more obvious spots, in contrast to the Taiwanese and Japanese subspecies, whose spots are nearly invisible. Many introduced populations are from Japan, so they also lack significant spots.
The color of the
The largest subspecies is the Manchurian sika deer (C. n. mantchuricus), in which males commonly weigh about 68–109 kg (150–240 lb) and females weigh 45–50 kg (100–110 lb), with large stags scaling up to 160 kg (350 lb), although there had been records of Yezo sika deer bulls weighing up to 170 or 200 kg (370 or 440 lb).[8][9] On the other end of the size spectrum, in the Japanese sika deer (C. n. nippon), males weigh 40–70 kg (90–150 lb) and females weigh 30–40 kg (70–90 lb).[10][11] All sikas are compact and dainty-legged, with short, trim, wedge-shaped heads and a boisterous disposition. When alarmed, they often display a distinctive flared rump, much like the American elk.
Sika stags have stout, upright
These deer have well developed metatarsal and preorbital glands. The volatile components of these glands were examined from a free-ranging female. The metatarsal gland contained 35 compounds: long-chain carboxylic acids, straight-chain aldehydes, long-chain alcohols, a ketone, and cholesterol.[12] The components of the preorbital gland were C14 through C18 straight and branched-chain fatty acids.[13]
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Sika deer (stag) at Jægersborg Dyrehave in Denmark
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Fawn at the Wildpark Alte Fasanerie in Klein-Auheim
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In Shiretoko Peninsula, Hokkaido, Japan
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The skull of stag displayed in the Finnish Museum of Natural History, Helsinki, Finland
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Sika deer standing up.
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Young male inNara
Behavior
Sika deer can be active throughout the day, though in areas with heavy human disturbance, they tend to be
Lifestyles vary between individuals, with some occurring alone while others are found in single-sex groups. Large herds gather in autumn and winter. Males spend most years alone occasionally forming herds together. Females with fawns only form herds during birthing season.[14] The sika deer is a highly vocal species, with over 10 individual sounds, ranging from soft whistles to loud screams.
Sika males are territorial and keep harems of females during their rut, which peaks from early September through November,[15] but may last well into the winter. Territory size varies with habitat type and size of the buck; strong, prime bucks may hold up to two hectares (five acres). Territories are marked by a series of shallow pits or "scrapes", which is digging holes (up to 1.6 m in wide and 0.3 m in deep) with forefeet or antlers,[14] into which the males urinate and from which emanates a strong, musky odor. Fights between rival males for territorial disputes, which occur by using hooves and antlers,[14] are sometimes fierce and long and may even be fatal.
The
The sika deer may interbreed with the red deer, the closest relative; hybrid descendants may have adaptive advantages over purebred relatives.[14]
In
Habitat
Sika deer are found in the
Population
Sika deer inhabit temperate and subtropical woodlands, often in areas suitable for farming and other human exploitation. Their range encompasses some of the most densely populated areas in the world, where forests were cleared hundreds of years ago. Their population status varies significantly in different countries. Although the species as a whole is thriving, it is endangered and extinct in many areas.
Japan has by far the largest native sika population in the world. Though the exact population is uncertain, it is likely to be in the hundred thousand range and is still increasing,[citation needed] mainly due to recent conservation efforts and the extinction of its main predator, the Japanese wolf (Canis lupus hodophilax), over a century ago. Without its main predator, the population of sika exploded and it is now overpopulated in many areas, posing a threat to both forests and farmlands. Efforts are now being made to control its population instead of conserving it. None of its subspecies is endangered except the Kerama deer (C. n. keramae) on the tiny Kerama Islands.[2] In 2015,
China used to have the largest population of sika, but thousands of years of hunting and habitat loss have reduced the population to less than 1,000.[1] Of the five subspecies in China, the North China sika deer (C. n. mandarinus) is believed to be extinct in the wild since the 1930s; the Shanxi sika deer (C. n. grassianus) has not been seen in the wild since the 1980s and is also believed to be extinct in the wild. The status of Manchurian sika deer in China is unclear, though it is also believed to be extinct, and the sightings there are actually feral populations.
The South China sika deer (C. n. kopschi) and Sichuan sika deer (C. n. sichuanicus) are the only subspecies known to remain in the wild in China. The former exists in fragmented populations of around 300 in southeast China, while the latter is found in a single population of over 400. The feral population is likely to be much higher than the wild, though most of them are descended from domesticated sikas of mixed subspecies. All of the subspecies are present in captivity, but a lack of suitable habitats and government efforts prevent their reintroduction.
The
Russia has a relatively large and stable population of 8,500–9,000 individuals of the Manchurian subspecies,[1] but this is limited to a small area in Primorsky Krai. Small populations might exist in North Korea, but the political situation makes investigation impossible. The original stock of sika deer in South Korea is extinct, with only captive stock raised for medicine from other parts of the deer's habitat. But in June 2020, an unmanned camera located a doe and fawn which might hold proof for Korea's last native sika deer, although the claim is contested.[19]
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Outside of a store on the island of Miyajima
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Tame deer wandering the streets of the town of Miyajima, Japan
Introduced populations
Sika deer have been introduced into a number of other countries, including Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland, Russia, Romania, New Zealand, Australia, the Philippines (Jolo Island), Poland, Sweden, Finland, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States (in Delaware, Kansas,[citation needed] Maryland,[20] Oklahoma, Nebraska,[20] Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Virginia, Indiana, Michigan,[20] Minnesota, Maine, New York,[21] Texas,[20] Wyoming, and Washington).[citation needed] In many cases, they were originally introduced as ornamental animals in parklands, but have established themselves in the wild. On Spieden Island in the San Juan Islands of Washington, they were introduced as a game animal.[citation needed]
In the UK and Ireland, several distinct feral populations now exist.[citation needed] Some of these are in isolated areas, for example on the island of Lundy, but others are contiguous with populations of the native red deer. Since the two species sometimes hybridize, a serious conservation concern exists.[22] In research which rated the negative impact of introduced mammals in Europe, the sika deer was found to be among the most damaging to the environment and economy, along with the brown rat and muskrat.[23]
In the 1900s,
Hunting
Across its original range and in many areas to which it has been introduced, the sika is regarded as a particularly prized and elusive
In the British Isles, sika are widely regarded as a serious threat to new and established woodlands, and public and private forestry bodies adopt policies of rigorous year-round culling.[25]
The main predators of sika deer include
target fawns.Velvet antler
Velvet antler (dried immature antlers) is a popular ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine, and sika in China were domesticated long ago for the antler trade, along with several other species. In Taiwan, both Formosan sika deer and Formosan sambar deer (Cervus unicolor swinhoei) have been farmed for velvet antlers. Japan is the only country in eastern Asia where sika deer were not farmed for velvet antlers.
Other deer raised for the antler trade were Thorold's deer (Cervus albirostris), central Asian red deer (Cervus canadensis affinis), and American elk (Cervus canadensis canadensis).
Cultural significance
In Shinto, the Shika Deer is considered a kind of messenger between mortals and the kami.[citation needed]
See also
References
- ^ . Retrieved 12 November 2021.
- ^ S2CID 40435595.
- PMID 15120401. Archived from the original(PDF) on 27 September 2004. Retrieved 6 October 2006.
- ISBN 978-0-8117-0496-0.
- ^ Senn, Helen. "Hybridisation between sika and red deer" (PDF). University of Edinburgh. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
Hybridisation is predominantly occurring between sika stags and red deer hinds.
- ^ "ITIS Standard Report Page: Cervus nippon soloensis". Retrieved 14 February 2016.
- ^ a b Landesman, N. (22 March 2004). "Sika deer, Japanese deer". Ultimate Ungulate.[full citation needed]
- ^ 『エゾシカは森の幸 人・森・シカの共生』p.63
- ISBN 9784431094296.
- ^ Tollman, Adrienne. "Sika deer". The British Deer Society. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
- ^ Nowak, R.M. (1991). Walker's Mammals of the World. Vol. 2 (5th ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- .
- .
- ^ a b c d e f g h Landesman, N. "Cervus nippon". University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Animal Diversity Web.
- ^ a b "Sika deer (Cervus nippon)". Woodland Trust. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
- ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 6 November 2020.
- PMID 37032702. Retrieved 7 February 2023.
- ^ "環境省_(お知らせ)改正鳥獣法に基づく指定管理鳥獣捕獲等事業の推進に向けたニホンジカ及びイノシシの生息状況等緊急調査事業の結果について". 環境省へようこそ! (in Japanese). Retrieved 9 November 2018.
- ^ "국내 멸종 '대륙사슴'?…야생 꽃사슴 발견". KBS 뉴스 (in Korean). Retrieved 3 March 2024.
- ^ a b c d "Sika Deer - North America Introduced - Big Game Hunting Records - Safari Club International Online Record Book". Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
- ^ Unger, Nathan (25 January 2019). "Exotic Sika Deer Captured on Trail Camera in New York". Wide Open Spaces. Retrieved 11 June 2023.
- ^ "Cross-breeding 'threat' to deer". BBC. 22 January 2009.
- ^ Kinver, Mark (7 May 2010). "Rats top invasive mammals table". BBC News. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
- ^ "British Mammals: Sika Deer". BBC. 15 June 2007. Retrieved 8 October 2009.
- ^ Downing, Sarah; Wade, Max; Ames, Vicky; McKee, Kelly. "Sika Deer" (PDF). nonnativespecies.org.
- "Cervus nippon". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 10 February 2006.
- Igota, H., Sakagura, M., Uno, H., Kaji, K., Maneko, M., Akamatsu, R., & Maekawa (in press). "Seasonal patterns of female sika deer in eastern Hokkaidō, Japan." Ecological Research, 19.
Further reading
- O'Brien, D.J., Rooney, S.M. and Hayden, T.J. (September 2009). "A differential vulnerability to hunting between the sexes in Sika-type calves". JSTOR 20764516.