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Arameans

Neo-Hittite states
, c. 800 BC

The Arameans (

Aramaic language was also widened, gradually gaining significance and eventually becoming the common language of public life and administration, particularly during the periods of Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539), and later Achaemenid Empire (539–330). As a result of linguistic aramization, a wider Aramaic-speaking areal was created throughout the central regions of the Near East
, exceeding the boundaries of Aramean ethnic communities.

Map of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609) in 824 BC (dark green) and in its apex in 671 BC (light green) under King Esarhaddon
The Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539) under Nabonidus (r.  556–539)
Darius I
(522–486).
Map includes Osroene as a tributary kingdom of the Armenian Empire (331 BC–428 AD) under Tigranes the Great, 69 BC (including vassals)

During the later

Edessan Aramaic, that later came to be known as Syriac language.[1][2][3]

From the 1st century CE onward, the process of

Islamization and gradual Arabization of Aramean communities throughout the Near East, ultimately resulting in their fragmentation and acculturation.[5][6]

History

Origins

Ras Shamra
(c. 6000 BC–c. 1190 BC) was at its height from c. 1450 BCE until its destruction in c. 1200 BCE.

The

Tiglath Pileser I (c. 1100 BCE).[8][9][10]


Sin zir Ibni inscription
Si Gabbor stele
The Neirab steles, a pair of 7th century BC Aramaic inscriptions found in 1891 in Al-Nayrab near Aleppo, Syria.

Terracotta octagon of the king
Adad founded by Shamshi-Adad I in about 1725 BCE. British Museum BM 91033.[11]
Approximate borders of the Second Eblaite Empire (c. 2300 BC–c. 2000 BC)
A map of Mesopotamia showing Washukanni, Nineveh, Hatra, Assur, Nuzi, Palmyra, Mari, Sippar, Babylon, Kish, Nippur, Isin, Lagash, Uruk, Charax Spasinu and Ur, from north to south.
Ahlamu or Aḫlamū, were a group or designation of Semitic semi-nomads. Their habitat was west of the Euphrates, between the mouth of the Khabur and Palmyra. They were first mentioned in the sources since Rim-Anum (18th century BC), a king of Uruk, and in texts from Mari; then, in the 14th century BC in Egyptian sources, in one of the Amarna letters, in the days of Akhenaten, where it is affirmed that they had advanced until the Euphrates.[12][13]

Nomadic pastoralists have long played a prominent role in the history and economy of the

The Levant
diminished in size, until eventually fully nomadic pastoralist lifestyles came to dominate much of the region. These highly mobile, competitive tribesmen with their sudden raids continually threatened long-distance trade and interfered with the collection of taxes and tribute.

The people who had long been the prominent population within what is today

East Semitic speaking state of Ebla (c. 3000 BC–c. 1600 BC), founding the powerful state of Mari (c. 2900 BC–c. 1761 BC) in the Levant, and during the 19th century BC founding Babylonia (1895 BCE–539 BCE) in southern Mesopotamia. However, they seem to have been displaced or wholly absorbed by the appearance of a people called the Ahlamu
by the 13th century BC, disappearing from history.

기원전 2000년경의 고대 근동과 지중해: 아모리인은 기원전 2100년경부터 메소포타미아의 대부분을 점유하기 시작하였으며 수메르 지역의 우르 제3 왕조(기원전 2100년경~2000년경)의 멸망의 원인들 중 하나였다
The Third Mariote Kingdom (c. 2266 BC–c. 1761 BC) during the reign of Zimri-Lim c. 1764 BC
Hittite Empire
(c. 1680 BC–c. 1178 BC) at its greatest extent, with Hittite rule ca. 1350–1300 BC represented by the green line.
고대 근동의 아마르나 시대(Amarna Period: 1400?~1292?) 초기의 지정학적 지도로 이집트 제국(기원전 16~11세기)의 지배를 받고 있던 아무루 왕국(기원전 14~12세기, 지도에서 "AMURRU")이 히타이트 제국(기원전 18세기경 ~ 기원전 1180년경)의 일부로 복속되기 전의 상황이다

Ahlamû appears to be a

Hanigalbat and Rapiqum on the Euphrates and "the mountain of the Ahlamû", apparently the region of Jebel Bishri
in northern Syria.

The Arameans would appear to be one part of the larger generic Ahlamû group rather than synonymous with the Ahlamu.

Aramean states

The emergence of the Arameans occurred during the

Ancient Iran, Ancient Greece and Balkans
, leading to the genesis of new peoples and polities across these regions.

Bronze Age collapse: 1206~1150 BC)의 고대 근동과 고대 그리스: 아무루 왕국은 기원전 1200년경에 해양 민족
에 의해 멸망하였다
Akhlame, also spelled Akhlamû, ancient Semitic nomads of
Tiglath-pileser I (1115–1077), however, refers for the first time to the “Akhlamû-Aramaeans,” and soon thereafter the Akhlame disappear from Assyrian annals and are replaced by the Aramaeans. The relationship between the Akhlame and the Aramaeans is still a matter of conjecture.
Encyclopaedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/topic/Akhlame

The first certain reference to the Arameans appears in an inscription of Tiglath-Pileser I (1115–1077 BC), which refers to subjugating the "Ahlamû-Aramaeans" (Ahlame Armaia). Shortly after, the Ahlamû disappear from Assyrian annals, to be replaced by the Aramaeans (Aramu, Arimi). This indicates that the Arameans had risen to dominance amongst the nomads. Among scholars, the relationship between the Akhlame and the Aramaeans is a matter of conjecture.[14] By the late 12th century BC, the Arameans were firmly established in Syria; however, they were conquered by the Middle Assyrian Empire, as had been the Amorites and Ahlamu before them.

The

Aramea
.

Some of the major Aramean speaking kingdoms included:

Later

Biblical sources tell us that Saul, David and Solomon
(late 11th to 10th centuries) fought against the small Aramean kingdoms ranged across the northern frontier of Israel:

Paneas (blue)
Geshur in the Golan Heights (brown)
Geshur in the Golan Heights (brown)
Geshur in the Hauran/Daraa (blue)
Geshur in the Hauran/Daraa (blue)
class=notpageimage|
Aramean kingdoms in Lebanon and Syria
Tel Dan Stele
TDWD.
MaterialBasalt
WritingOld Aramaic (Phoenician alphabet)
Created870–750 BCE
Discovered1993–94
Present locationIsrael Museum

In the early 11th century BCE, much of Israel came under Aramean rule for eight years according to the Biblical

Tel Dan Stele, was discovered in northern Israel, and is famous for being perhaps the earliest non-Israelite extra-biblical historical reference to the Israelite royal dynasty, the House of David
.

Further north, the Arameans gained possession of Post-Hittite

Post-Hittite states
. During the 11th and the 10th centuries BCE, the Arameans conquered:

At the same time, Arameans moved to the east of the Euphrates, where they settled in such numbers that, for a time, the whole region became known as Aram-Naharaim or "Aram of the two rivers" or Northwest Mesopotamia along the elbow of the Euphrates River. Eastern Aramaean tribes spread into Babylonia and an Aramaean usurper was crowned king of Babylon under the name of Adad-apal-iddin.[32] One of their earliest semi-independent kingdoms in southern Mesopotamia was Bît-Bahiâni (Tell Halaf).

Various Luwian and Aramean (orange shades) states in the 8th century BCE
Aramean eastern states (various non-green shades) in the 9th century BC

Under Neo-Assyrian rule

Assyrian annals from the end of the Middle

Aramea (modern Syria) for the Assyrians
.

Economic recovery in the reign of Adad-nirari II (911–891 BC)
Campaigns and contemporaries of Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC)
Campaigns of Shalmaneser III (859–824 BC)
Aramean king who is mentioned in the Bible.[33][34] Under his reign, Aram-Damascus became an empire that ruled over large parts of Syria and the Land of Israel.[35]
Illustration by Gustave Doré from the 1866 La Sainte Bible depicting an Israelite victory over the army of Ben-Hadad (885–865 BC), a king of Aram-Damascus, described in 1 Kings 20:26-34

In 732 BC

Eber Nari, whilst still using the term Aramean to describe many of its peoples. The Assyrians conducted forced deportations of hundreds of thousands Arameans into both Assyria and Babylonia (where a migrant population already existed).[36]
Conversely, the Aramaic language was adopted as the lingua franca of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 8th century BC, and the native Assyrians and Babylonians began to make a gradual language shift towards Aramaic as the most common language of public life and administration.

Neo Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) in the 8th century BC. After the death of Adad-nirari III
(811–783 BC) in 783 BC, Assyria had entered a period of instability and decline, and lost its suzerainty over its former vassal and tributary states.
Map showing Tiglath-Pileser's conquests and deportation of Israelites. Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BC) discouraged revolts against Assyrian rule with the use of forced deportations of thousands of people all over the empire.[37]

The

Aramea
and all the way into Egypt.

As a result of migratory processes, various Aramean groups were settled throughout the

Northern Arabia.[45]

Population transfers, conducted during the

ancient Assyrian language (a dialect of Akkadian), but later accepted Aramaic language.[46]

Under Neo-Babylonian rule

Aramea/Eber-Nari was then ruled by the succeeding

Kushite Empire
. The Egyptians, having entered the region in a belated attempt to aid their former Assyrian masters, fought the Babylonians (initially with the help of remnants of the Assyrian army) in the region for decades before being finally vanquished.

The Babylonians remained masters of the Aramean lands only until 539 BC, when the

Persian Achaemenid Empire overthrew Nabonidus
, the Assyrian born last king of Babylon, who had himself previously overthrown the Chaldean dynasty in 556 BC.

Under Achaemenid rule

Further information:
Eber Nari

The Arameans were later conquered by the

Eber Nari
still applied to the region.

Under Seleucid and Ptolemaic rule

Further information:
Coele Syria and Syrian Wars

Conquests of

Coele Syria" (meaning: the whole Syria), a term derived from an older Aramean designation (the whole Aram). Since earlier times, ancient Greeks were commonly using "Syrian" labels as designations for Arameans and heir lands, but is during the Hellenistic (Seleucid-Ptolemaic) period that the term Syria was finally defined, as designation for regions western of Euphrates, as opposed to the term Assyria, that designated regions further to the east.[47][48][49]

During the 3rd century BCE, various narratives related to the history of earlier Aramean kingdoms became accessible to wider audiences after the translation of

exonymic (foreign) terms had far-reaching influence on later terminology.[52]

Under Roman and Parthian rule

Kingdom of Osroene
(gray shade) and the surrounding regions in the 1st century AD
Edessan Aramaic language

After the establishment of

Edessa, known in Aramaic language as Urhay.[53]

Greek geographer and historian

self-designation, and also noted that Greeks are commonly labeling them as "Syrians". He stated that "those whom we call Syrians are called Aramaians by the Syrians themselves", also recognizing "Syrians as the Arimians, now called the Aramaians", and mentioning "Syria itself, for those there are Aramaians".[54]

Between the 1st and the 3rd centuries AD, ancient Arameans adopted

Christian Bible was translated into Aramaic, and by the 4th century local Aramaic dialect of Edessa (Urhay) developed into a literary language, known as Edessan Aramaic (Urhaya).[55][56]

One of the most prominent Christian authors from that period was saint

endonymic (native) references to his language (Aramaic), homeland (Aram) and people (Arameans).[57][58][59][60]

Syrianization and Arabization

Aramaic language
in the 1st century, and its gradual decline

During the

ethnolinguistic
identity.

First process (Syrianization) was initiated during the 5th century,[61] when ancient Greek custom of using Syrian labels for Arameans and their language, started to gain acceptance among Aramean literary and ecclesiastical elites. The practice of using Syrian labels as designations for Arameans and their language was very common among ancient Greeks, and under their influence it also became common among Romans and Byzantines.[62]

The initial vessel of Syrianization was the

exonymic (foreign) designations, thus creating a specific duality that persisted throughout the Middle Ages, as attested in works of prominent writers, who used both designations, Aramean/Aramaic and Syrian/Syriac.[63][64]

Since

Classical Syriac, thus creating a base for the term Syriac Christianity.[67][68][69]

The second process (

Arabic language, not only as the dominant language of Islamic prayer and worship, but also as a common language of public and domestic life. Acceptance of Arabic language became the main vessel of gradual Arabization of Aramean communities throughout the Near East, ultimately resulting in their fragmentation and acculturation. Those processes affected not only Islamized Arameans, but also some of those who remained Christians, thus creating local communities of Arabic-speaking Christians of Aramean origin, who spoke Arabic in their public and domestic life, but continued to belong to Churches that used liturgical Aramaic/Syriac language.[70][71][5][6]

Under Arab and Turkish rule

Since the Arab conquest of the Near East in the 7th century, remaining communities of Christian Arameans converged around their ecclesiastiacal institutions.

Classical Syriac,[68] and the Oriental Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch itself came to be known as the Syriac Orthodox Church
.

During the 10th century,

Seljuk Turks, who took Antioch (1084). Later establishment of Crusader states (1098), the Principality of Antioch and the County of Edessa, created new challenges for local Aramaic-speaking Christians, both Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox.[78]

Among the ecclesiastical and literary elites of the Antiochian Oriental Orthodox Patriarchate, traditions related to the Aramean identity and heritage persisted throughout the medieval period. The use of native (

Michael of Antioch
(d. 1199), who noted in his historiographical works:

"With the help of God we write down the memory of the kingdoms which belonged in the past to our Aramean people, that is, sons of Aram, who are called Suryoye, that is people from Syria."[82]

During the course of time, exonymic designations for Aramaic language, based on Syrian/Syriac labels, became more common, developing into several dialectal variants (Suryoyo/Suryaya, Sūrayṯ/Sūreṯ, Sūryān). By the 16th century, when the entire Near East fel under the Turkish rule, Syrian/Syriac designations were already dominant, and the term Suryoye thus became the principal term of self-identification.[83][84]

Legacy and modern Aramean identity

Further information:
Western Neo-Aramaic language, and Syriac Christianity

Legacy of ancient Arameans became of particular interest for scholars during the

Early Modern period, resulting in the emergence of Aramaic studies, as a distinctive field dedicated to the study of Aramaic language and Aramean cultural heritage in general.[85] By the 19th century, the Aramean question was formulated, and several scholarly theses were proposed regarding the development of Aramaic language, and the history of Arameans.[86]

Some of those questions were focused on contemporary issues, related to the uses of Aramean/Aramaic, Syrian/Syriac, Assyrian and Chaldean designations. In 1875, Henry Van-Lennep (d. 1889), who was working as an American missionary among

Eastern Christians in the Ottoman Near East, stated that Arameans are "better known as the Syrians, the Assyrians, and the Chaldeans", and also added: "The name Aramean is generally applied to all the inhabitants of the country which extends from the eastern boundary of Assyria to the Mediterranean, exclusive of Asia Minor proper and Palestine". Van-Lennep also stated that Arameans are divided in two branches, eastern ("the Eastern Arameans, or Assyrians, now called Chaldeans"), and western ("the Western Arameans, or modern Syrians").[87]

Some of those pan-Aramean views were later accepted by other western researchers, who also held that modern Syrians are descendants of Arameans.[88] In 1888, British antropologist George T. Bettany (d. 1891) thus noted that "The modern Semitic people occupying Syria are most accurately termed Aramaeans."[89] Reflecting on traditional influences of Greek terminology on English translations of the Septuagint, American orientalist Robert W. Rogers (d. 1930) noted in 1921: "it is most unfortunate that Syria and Syrians ever came into the English versions. It should always be Aram and the Aramaeans".[90]

During the 20th century, the notion of Aramean continuity clashed with the notion of

Aramean diaspora, especially in Germany and Sweden.[91] In 2014, Israel officially recognized Arameans as a distinctive minority.[92] Questions related to minority rights of Arameans in some other countries were also brought to international attention.[93]

Culture

Language

Main article:
Old Aramaic language
Further information:
Aramaic language

Arameans were mostly defined by their use of the West Semitic

Old Aramaic language (1100 BC – AD 200), first written using the Phoenician alphabet, over time modified to a specifically-Aramaic alphabet
.

As early as the 8th century BC, Aramaic competed with the East Semitic

Islamic conquest of Mesopotamia
in the 7th century AD, when it became gradually superseded by Arabic.

The late Old Aramaic language of the

Hebrew
, especially within the Israeli-born generations.

The

Gnostic Mandaean sect, mainly in Iraq and Iran
.

Religion

See also: Canaanite religion

It appears from their inscriptions as well as from their names that Arameans worshipped

Tammuz, Bel and Nergal, and Canaanite-Phoenician deities such as the storm-god, El, the supreme deity of Canaan, in addition to Anat
(‘Atta) and others.

The Arameans who lived outside their homelands apparently followed the traditions of the country where they settled. The King of

Hurrian
influences.

Between the 1st and 4th centuries AD, the Arameans began to adopt

Syriac script
emerged.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Arameans.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Arameans

References

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