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The history of Sri Lanka covers Sri Lanka and the history of the Indian subcontinent and its surrounding regions of South Asia, Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean.

Prehistoric Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years and possibly even as far back as 500,000 years.

According to the Mahāvamsa, a chronicle written in Pāḷi, the preceeding inhabitants of Sri Lanka were said to be Yakkhas and Nagas.^[4] Sinhalese history traditionally starts in 543 BC with the arrival of Prince Vijaya, a semi-legendary prince who sailed with 700 followers to the island, after being expelled from the Vanga Kingdom, in present-day Bengal.^[5] Prince Vijaya thereafter established the Sinhala Kingdom ushering in the historical period of Sri Lanka. During the Anuradhapura period (377 BCE–1017) Buddhism was introduced in the 3rd century BCE by Mahinda, son of Indian emperor Ashoka.^[6]

Due to the island's close proximity to Southern India, Dravidian influence on Sri Lankan politics and trade had been very active since the third century BC. Trade relations between the Anuradhapura Kingdom and southern India existed very probably from an early time.^[7][8] South Indian attempts at usurping power of the Anuradhapura Kingdom appears to have been at least motivated by the prospect of influencing the country's lucrative external trade.^[7] From about the fifth century AD onwards, Tamil mercenaries were brought to the island for the service of the Sinahalese monarchs.^[7][9] This would play a small part in the fall of the Anuradhapura Kingdom in the 11th century with the Chola conquest.

Invasion of the Anuradhapura Kingdom by

Topographic map of Sri Lanka

Precipitation and irrigation map of Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka lies on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was formerly part of the Indo-Australian Plate.^[17] It is in the Indian Ocean southwest of the Bay of Bengal, between latitudes 5° and 10°N, and longitudes 79° and 82°E.^[18][19] Sri Lanka is separated from the mainland portion of the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait. According to Hindu mythology, a land bridge existed between the Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above sea level.^[20] Legends claim that it was passable on foot up to 1480 AD, until cyclones deepened the channel.^[21][22] Portions are still as shallow as 1 metre (3 ft), hindering navigation.^[23] The island consists mostly of flat to rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. The highest point is Pidurutalagala, reaching 2,524 metres (8,281 ft) above sea level.

Sri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is the Mahaweli River, extending 335 kilometres (208 mi).^[24] These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls of 10 meters or more. The highest is Bambarakanda Falls, with a height of 263 metres (863 ft).^[25] Sri Lanka's coastline is 1,585 km long.^[26] Sri Lanka claims an Exclusive economic zone (EEZ) extending 200 nautical miles, which is approximately 6.7 times Sri Lanka's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs and shallow beds of coastal and estuarine seagrasses.^[27]

Sri Lanka has 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons.^[26] Sri Lanka's mangrove ecosystem spans over 7,000 hectares and played a vital role in buffering the force of the waves in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.^[28] The island is rich in minerals such as ilmenite, feldspar, graphite, silica, kaolinite, mica and thorium.^[29][30] Existence of petroleum and gas in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed and the extraction of recoverable quantities is underway.^[31]

Lying within the Indomalayan realm, Sri Lanka is one of 25 biodiversity hotspots in the world.^[32] Although the country is relatively small in size, it has the highest biodiversity density in Asia.^[33] A remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals (see List), are endemic.^[34] Sri Lanka has declared 24 wildlife reserves, which are home to a wide range of native species such as Asian elephants, leopards, sloth bears, the unique small loris, a variety of deer, the purple-faced langur, the endangered wild boar, porcupines and Indian pangolins.^[35]

Flowering

During the Mahaweli Development programme of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling 1,900 km² (730 sq mi) as national parks. Sri Lanka's forest cover, which was around 49% in 1920, had fallen to approximately 24% by 2009.^[38][39]

Overview

Periodization of Sri Lanka history:

Prehistoric Sri Lanka

Pre Iron Age (Pre ~1000 BC)

The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years and possibly even as far back as 500,000 years.

The protohistoric Early Iron Age appears to have established itself in South India by at least as early as 1200 BCE, if not earlier[49]^[50] The earliest manifestation of this in Sri Lanka is radiocarbon-dated to c. 1000–800 BCE at Anuradhapura and Aligala shelter in Sigiriya.^{[51][52][53][54]} It is very likely that further investigations will push back the Sri Lankan lower boundary to match that of South India.^[55] Archaeological evidence for the beginnings of the Iron Age in Sri Lanka is found at Anuradhapura, where a large city–settlement was founded before 900 BCE. The settlement was about 15 hectares in 900 BCE, but by 700 BCE it had expanded to 50 hectares.^[56] A similar site from the same period has also been discovered near Aligala in Sigiriya.^[57]

The hunter-gatherer people known as the

The Pali chronicles, the

Vijaya was made the prince-regent by his father, but he and his band of followers became notorious for their violent deeds. After their repeated complaints failed to stop Vijaya's acts, the prominent citizens demanded that Vijaya be put to death. King Sinhabahu then decided to expel Vijaya and his 700 followers from the kingdom. The men's heads were half-shaved and they were put on a ship that was sent forth on the sea. The wives and children of these 700 men were also sent on separate ships. Vijaya had his followers landed at a place called Supparaka; the women landed at a place called Mahiladipaka, and the children landed at a place called Naggadipa. Vijaya's ship later reached Sri Lanka, on the North west coast of present-day

As Vijaya and Kuveni were sleeping, he woke up to sounds of music and singing. Kuveni informed him that the island was home to Yakkhas, who would kill her for giving shelter to Vijaya's men. She explained that the noise was because of wedding festivities in the Yakkha city of Sirisavatthu. With Kuveni's help, Vijaya defeated the Yakkhas. Vijaya and Kuveni had two children: Jivahatta and Disala. Vijaya established the Kingdom of Tambapanni. The new community established by him were now called Sinhala (සිංහල) after Sinhabahu.^{[73][74][71][75]} And the island itself became to be known Sinhala-dipa; "the island of the Sinhalese". It is from this name that subsequent names for the island, i.e. Serendiva, Serendip, Ceilão, Zeilan, Ceylan, Ceylon were formed. To the Sinhalese the island would be always known as Lanka.^[18]

Vijaya's ministers and other followers established several new villages. For example, Upatissa established Upatissagāma on the bank of the Gambhira river, north of Anuradhagama. His followers decided to formally consecrate him as king, but for this he needed a queen of the same rank, an Aryan (noble). Vijaya's ministers, therefore, sent emissaries with precious gifts to the city of Madhura, which was ruled by a Pandu king.^{[note 1]} The king agreed to send his daughter as Vijaya's bride. He also requested other families to offer their daughters as brides for Vijaya's followers. Seven hundred daughters of the principal nobles came along with the Princess.^[76] The Pandu king sent to Sri Lanka his own daughter, other women (including a hundred maidens of noble descent), craftsmen, a thousand families of 18 guilds, elephants, horses, waggons, and other gifts. This group landed in Sri Lanka, at a port known as Mahatittha.^[77][71] Vijaya married the princess and was consecrated as King with great splendour. The other Pandu ladies were bestowed on the King's minister's, according to their grades, or castes. This is the first time in Sri Lankan history castes are mentioned. Though the system could have also come with Vijaya and his settlers.^[78][71] Dipavamsa also omits mention of the South Indian princess.^[79]

Vijaya then requested Kuveni, his Yakkhini queen, to leave the community, saying that his citizens feared supernatural beings like her. He offered her money, and asked her to leave their two children, Jivahatta and Disala, behind. But Kuveni took the children along with her to the Yakkha city of Lankapura. She asked her children to stay back, as she entered the city, where other Yakkhas recognized her as a traitor. She was suspected of being a spy, and was killed by a Yakkha. On advice of her maternal uncle, the children fled to Sumanakuta (identified with Sri Pada). In the Malaya region of Sri Lanka, they became husband-wife and gave rise to the Pulinda race (identified with the Vedda people).^{[note 2][80][71]} The Vedda however are probably with little doubt the earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka.^[81]

Vijaya (543–505 BC) reigned for 38 years but had no other children after Kuveni's departure. Nothing much of significance took place during his reign.^[82] When he grew old, he became concerned that he would die heirless. So, he decided to bring his twin brother Sumitta from India, to govern his kingdom. He sent a letter to Sumitta, but by the time he could get a reply, he died. The monarchy was succeeded by his chief minister Upatissa (505–504 BC) who became regent and governed the kingdom from Upatissagāma for a year, while awaiting a reply. Meanwhile, in Sinhapura, Sumitta had become the king, and had three sons. His queen was a daughter of the king of Madda (possibly Madra). When Vijaya's messengers arrived, he was himself very old. So, he requested one of his sons to depart for Sri Lanka. His youngest son, Panduvasdeva (504–474 BC), volunteered to go. Panduvasdeva and 32 sons of Sumitta's ministers reached Sri Lanka, where Panduvasdeva became the new ruler.^[83][82][84]

Panduvasdeva married an Indian princess,

Buddha. She came to Sri Lanka with six of her brothers, Ramagona, Rohana, Dighayu, Uruvela, Anuradha and Vigitagama who would go on to found cities all over the country. Anuradhapura, Uruvela, Vijithapura, Dighayu and Rohana are all attributed to them. Anuradha would build the earliest recorded tank in the country's irrigation network^[85][86] Panduvasdeva reigned at Vijithapura.^[86] It was during this time that the country was subdivided into the three provinces of Pihiti Rata or Raja Rata in the north, Maya Rata in the central-west and Ruhuna Rata in the south-east, identified later with Magama in present-day Hambantota District. The central mountainous region of Sri Lanka was known as Malaya Rata.^[85][86]

Abhaya (474–454 BC) succeeded his father Panduvasdeva. The oldest of 10 sons, Abhaya appears to have been a weak and indulgent king. His reign was noted for a rebellion caused by his nephew Pandukabhaya who would go to war with his uncles. Upon losing the battle Abhaya sent a letter to the prince in secret conferring on him the rule of the country south of the river, sharing sovereignty of Sri Lanka. Hearing of this plan angered Abhaya's brothers, Pandukabhaya's uncles, who compelled Abhaya to abdicate and elected Prince Tissa (454–437 BC), the next in line, as regent.^[87][88] Tissa was not archknowledged universally as the Sinhalese king, remained as regent while the war continued. The Nineteen Years' War (458–439 BC) ended with the Battle of Labugamaka where with the aid of the Yakkhas and others, Pandukabhaya slew eight of his uncles who were against him.^[89][90][91] He took the capital Upatissagāma and preceeded to Anuradhagama where in 438 BC he built it as the new capital of Sri Lanka, renaming it Anuradhapura.^{[note 3][92]}

Anuradhapura period (437 BCE–1017)

Main article: Anuradhapura period

Early Anuradhapura period (437 BC–463 AD)

Main article: Anuradhapura Kingdom

tanks, dagobas and palaces.^[94] Society underwent a major transformation during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura, with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 BC,^[95] Mahinda, the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka and a bhikkhu (Buddhist monk) arrived in Mihintale carrying the message of Buddhism.^[96] His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese population.^[97]

Succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain a large number of

Bodhivamsa)^[100]

Sri Lanka first experienced a foreign invasion during the reign of

Dhatusena.^[105]

The

Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos

.

Sri Lanka was the first Asian country known to have a female ruler:

red coral, which was used to make an elaborate netlike adornment for the Ruwanwelisaya. In addition, Sri Lankan male dancers witnessed the assassination of Caligula. When Queen Cleopatra sent her son Caesarion into hiding, he was headed to Sri Lanka.^[109][110]

The

bhikkhunis (Buddhist nuns) first arrived in China when Devasāra and ten other bhikkhunis came from Sri Lanka at the request of Chinese women and established the order there in 429.^[111]

During the reign of

Kashyapa (477–495) built the famous sigiriya

rock palace where some 700 rock graffiti give a glimpse of ancient Sinhala.

Middle Anuradhapura period (463–691)

Sri Lankan monarchs undertook some remarkable construction projects such as Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", built during the reign of Kashyapa I of Anuradhapura, who ruled between 477 and 495. The Sigiriya rock fortress is surrounded by an extensive network of ramparts and moats. Inside this protective enclosure were gardens, ponds, pavilions, palaces and other structures.^[112][113]

The 1,600-year-old Sigiriya frescoes are an example of ancient Sri Lankan art at its finest.^[112][113] They are one of the best preserved examples of ancient urban planning in the world.^[114] They have been declared by UNESCO as one of the seven World Heritage Sites in Sri Lanka.^[115] Among other structures, large reservoirs, important for conserving water in a climate with rainy and dry seasons, and elaborate aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile, are most notable. Biso Kotuwa, a peculiar construction inside a dam, is a technological marvel based on precise mathematics that allows water to flow outside the dam, keeping pressure on the dam to a minimum.^[116]

Late Anuradhapura period (691–1017)

Culavamsa says that the capital at Anuradhapura was "utterly destroyed in every way by the Chola army.^[118] There is practically no trace of Chola rule in Anuradhapura, but the conquest had one permanent result in that the capital of Anuradhapura was destroyed, and Polonnaruwa, a military outpost of the Sinhalese,^{[note 4]} was renamed Jananathamangalam and become the new center of administration for the Cholas.^[10] Earlier Tamil invaders had only aimed at overlordship of Rajarata

in the north, but the Cholas were bent on control of the whole island.

Polonnaruwa period (1017–1232)

Main article: Polonnaruwa period

Chola conquest (1017–1070)

Main article: Chola conquest of Anuradhapura

A partial consolidation of Chola power in

Following a

Polonnaruwa period (1017–1232)

Polonnaruwa Vatadage

Gal Vihara

Nissanka Latha Mandapaya

Polonnaruwa Siva Devale No. 2 ^{[note 5]}

Upon Vijayabāhu I's death a succession dispute jeopardized the recovery from the Chola conquest. His successors proved unable to consolidate power plunging the kingdom into a period of civil war, from which Parākramabāhu I (1153–1186), a closely related royal emerged.^[132] Parākramabāhu I established control over the island and secured his recognition as Vijayabāhu's heir by obtaining the Tooth and bowl relics of the Buddha, which by now had become essential to the legitimacy of royal authority in Sri Lanka.^[132]

By the time of the Polonnaruwa period the Sinhalese has centuries of experience in irrigation technology behind them and so the Polonnaruwa kings, especially Parākramabāhu the Great, made distinguished contributions of their own at honing these techniques to cope with the special requirements of the immense irrigation projects at the time.^[133] Sri Lanka's irrigation network was extensively expanded during the reign of Parākramabāhu the Great.^[134] He built 1470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2376 mini-reservoirs.^[134] His most famous construction is the Parakrama Samudra, the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Having re-established the political unification of the island, Parākramabāhu continued Vijayabāhu policy in keeping a tight check on separatist tendencies within the island, especially in Rohana where particularism was a deeply ingrained political tradition. Parākramabāhu faced a formidable rebellion in 1160 as Rohana did not accept its loss of autonomy lightly. A rebellion in 1168 in Rajarata also manifested. Both were put down with great severity and all vestiges of its former autonomy purposefully eliminated. Particularism was now much less tolerated than it was during the Anuradhapura period. This new over-centralization of authority in Polonnaruwa would however work against the Sinhalese in the future and the country would eventually pay dearly as a result.^[135]

Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Myanmar) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.^[136][137] Parākramabāhu I was the last of the great ancient Sri Lankan kings.^[135] His reign is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power.^[138][137] Parākramabāhu had no sons, which complicated the the problem of succession upon his death. Amid the succession crisis a scion of a foreign dynasty, Niśśaṅka Malla established his claims as a Prince of Kalinga,^{[note 6]} claiming to be chosen and trained for the succession by Parākramabāhu himself.^[135] He was also either the son-in-law or nephew of Parākramabāhu.^[139]

Niśśaṅka Malla (1187–1196) was the first monarch of the House of Kalinga and the only Polonnaruwa monarch to rule over the whole island after Parākramabāhu. His reign gave the country a brief decade of order and stability before the speedy and catastrophic break-up of the hydraulic civilisations of the dry zone.^[135] With his death there was a renewal of political dissension, now complicated by dynastic disputes.^[140] Though he and his predecessors Vijayabāhu and Parākramabāhu achieved much in state building. The conspicuous lack of restraint, especially that of Parākramabāhu, in combination with an ambitious and venturesome foreign policy, and an expensive diversion of state resources towards public works projects, sapped the strength of the country and contributed to its sudden and complete collapse.^[135]

The House of Kalinga would maintain itself in power, but only with the support of an influential faction within the country. Their survival owed much to the inability of the factions opposing them to come up with an aspirant to the throne with a politically viable claim, or sufficient durability once installed in power, therefore the House of Kalinga's hold on the throne was inherently precarious. On three occasions, the queen of Parākramabāhu, Lilāvatī, was raised to the throne out of desperation.^[140] The factional struggle and political instability attracted the attention of South Indian adventures bent on plunder, culminating in the devastating campaign of pillage under Māgha of Kalinga (1215–1236), claiming the inheritance of the kingdom through his kinsman who reigned before.^[141][140]

Māgha, a bigoted Hindu, persecuted Buddhists, despoiling the temples and giving away lands of the Sinhalese to his followers.^[141] His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of Rajarata as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of the Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power.^[142] Māgha's rule of 21 years and its aftermath are a watershed in the history of the island, creating a new political order.^[140] After his death in 1255 Polonnaruwa ceased to be the capital, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power and from then on there were two, or sometimes three rulers existing concurrently.^[140][143] Parakramabahu VI of Kotte (1411-1466) would be the only other Sinhalese monarch to establish control over the whole island after this period.^[140] The Rajarata, the traditional location of the Sinhalese kingdom and Rohana, the previously autonomous subregion were abandoned. Two new centers of political authority emerged as a result of the fall of the Polonnaruwa kingdom.

In the face of repeated South Indian invasions the Sinhalese monarchy and people retreated into the hills of the wet zone, further and further south, seeking primarily security. The capital was abandoned and moved to

Early Transitional period (1232–1521)

Capital at Dambadeniya

The next three centuries were marked by kaleidoscopic shifting of the national capital from the north central to the south and central of the island.^[141] The Jaffna kingdom came under the rule of the south on one occasion; in 1450, following the conquest by Parâkramabâhu VI's adopted son, Prince Sapumal. He ruled the North from 1450 to 1467.^[146]

Capital at Gampola

The capital was moved to Gampola by Buwanekabahu IV, he is said to be the son of Sawulu Vijayabāhu. During this time, a muslim traveller and geographer named Ibn Battuta came to Sri Lanka and wrote a book about it. The Gadaladeniya Viharaya is the main building made in the Gampola Kingdom period. The Lankatilaka Viharaya is also a main building built in Gampola.

Chinese admiral

During this time the Portuguese entered into the internal politics of Sri Lanka. Largely by accident, first contact between the two nations was in 1505-06. But it was not until 1517-18 that the Portuguese sought to establish a fortified trading settlement in order to establish control over the island's Cinnamon trade, as opposed to territorial conquest.^[156] The building of a fort, near Colombo, had to be given up due popular hostility that was fanned by Moorish traders, who had established themselves on the island and controled a large portion of its external trade.^[156] The Portuguese at no stage established dominance over the politics of South Asia, but sought to do so over its commerce by means of subjugation through naval power. Using their superior technology and sea power at points of weakness or divisions, the Portuguese would attain influence in greater proportions to their actual strength. Portuguese anxiety to establish a Bridgehead in Sri Lanka to control the island's Cinnamon trade drew them further into the politics of Sri Lanka.^[157]

Kotte suffered from persistant succession disputes during this time. Though all were subordinate to the emperor of Kotte, brothers of the king would take the title Raja (king) and rule parts of the kingdom. This practice was possibly tollerated to humour princes who had some claim to the throne by giving them positions of responsibility, and the belief that having loyal relatives in outlying disticts afforded some security to the king. However this political structure inevitably led to its own weakening in the long run, as those princes, who could, virtually administered the areas they claimed as autonomous principalities.^[158]

Crisis of the Sixteenth Century (1521–1597)

In 1521 the Vijayabā Kollaya was one such and the most eventful of succession disputes in the kingdom and would trigger the most chaotic period in the history of Sri Lanka. Vijayabāhu VI, who had four sons by two wives, sought to select his youngest son for the succession of the kingdom. In reaction the three older brothers assassinated their father, with the assistance of the Kandyan ruler, and divided the kingdom among themselves. With this partition the fragmentation of the Sri Lankan polity seemed well beyond the capacity of any statesman to repair.^[158] The Kandyan ruler took advantage of the situation in a cynical and shrewd move to aggrevate the political instability as an opportunity to assert their independance from the control of Kotte. Kanday ruler Jayavira Bandara (1511–52) readily aided the three princes against their father, and it was clear the decline of the Kingdom of Kotte was necessary for the rise of the Kingdom of Kandy.^[156]

Kandyan period (1597–1815)

When the Dutch captain Joris van Spilbergen landed in 1602, the king of Kandy appealed to him for help.

In 1619, succumbing to attacks by the Portuguese, the independent existence of Jaffna kingdom came to an end.^[159]

During the reign of the

As a result of the

The Colebrooke-Cameron reforms of 1833 ushered in a period of reformist zeal that would never again be matched during British rule.^[169] They introduced a utilitarian and liberal political culture to the country based on the rule of law and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of government. An executive council and a legislative council were established, later becoming the foundation of a representative legislature. By this time, experiments with coffee plantations were largely successful.^[170]

Soon coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka. However falling coffee prices as a result of the

By the end of the 19th century, a new educated social class transcending race and caste arose through British attempts to staff the Ceylon Civil Service and the legal, educational, and medical professions.^[173] New leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the Ceylon Legislative Council on a communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalism reacted against Christian missionary activities.^[174] The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the unique harmony among the Sinhalese and Tamil political leadership, which dissipated by the 1920s.^[175]

In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the Ceylon National Congress (CNC), under the leadership of Ponnambalam Arunachalam,^[177] pressing colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without massive popular support, and with the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s.^[178]

The Donoughmore reforms of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced universal adult franchise^{[note 8]}. This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon, which succeeded the legislative council.^[179][180] In 1937, Tamil leader G. G. Ponnambalam demanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the Soulbury reforms of 1944–45.

Sri Lanka was a front-line British base against the Japanese during

The Sinhalese leader D. S. Senanayake left the CNC on the issue of independence, disagreeing with the revised aim of 'the achieving of full independance' in favour of Dominion status, although his real reasons were more subtle.^[181] He subsequently formed the United National Party (UNP) in 1946,^[182] when a new constitution was agreed on, based on the behind-the-curtain lobbying of the Soulbury commission. At the elections of 1947, the UNP won a minority of seats in parliament, but cobbled together a coalition with the Sinhala Maha Sabha party of Solomon Bandaranaike and the Tamil Congress of G.G. Ponnambalam. The successful inclusions of the Tamil-communalist leader Ponnambalam, and his Sinhalese counterpart Bandaranaike were a remarkable political balancing act by Senanayake.

Sri Lanka (1948–present)

The Soulbury constitution ushered in Dominion status, with independence proclaimed on 4 February 1948.^[183] D. S. Senanayake became the first Prime Minister of Ceylon.^[183] Prominent Tamil leaders including Ponnambalam and Arunachalam Mahadeva joined his cabinet.^[184] The British Navy remained stationed at Trincomalee until 1956. A countrywide popular demonstration against withdrawal of the rice ration, known as 1953 Hartal, resulted in the resignation of prime minister Dudley Senanayake.^[185]

S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike was elected prime minister in 1956. His three-year rule had a profound impact through his self-proclaimed role of "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture".^[186] He introduced the controversial Sinhala Only Act, recognising Sinhala as the only official language of the government. Although partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived in it a threat to their language and culture.^{[187][188][189]}

The

Lapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training.

The 2004 Asian tsunami killed over 35,000 in Sri Lanka.^[208] From 1985 to 2006, the Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held four rounds of peace talks without success. Both LTTE and the government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in 2008. In 2009, under the Presidency of Mahinda Rajapaksa, the Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the LTTE and re-established control of the entire country by the Sri Lankan Government.^[209] Overall, between 60,000 and 100,000 people were killed during the 26 years of conflict.^[210][211]

Forty thousand Tamil civilians

According to the Ministry of Resettlement, most of the displaced persons had been released or returned to their places of origin, leaving only 6,651 in the camps as of December 2011.[218] In May 2010, President Rajapaksa appointed the Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission (LLRC) to assess the conflict between the time of the ceasefire agreement in 2002 and the defeat of the LTTE in 2009.^[219][220] Sri Lanka has emerged from its 26-year war to become one of the fastest growing economies of the world.^[221][222]

See also

Notes