Zika virus
Zika virus | |
---|---|
Zika virus capsid model, colored by chains, PDB entry 5ire[2] | |
Virus classification | |
(unranked): | Virus |
Realm: | Riboviria |
Kingdom: | Orthornavirae |
Phylum: | Kitrinoviricota |
Class: | Flasuviricetes |
Order: | Amarillovirales |
Family: | Flaviviridae |
Genus: | Flavivirus |
Species: | Zika virus
|
Zika virus (ZIKV; pronounced
The infection, known as Zika fever or Zika virus disease, often causes no or only mild symptoms, similar to a very mild form of dengue fever.[5] While there is no specific treatment, paracetamol (acetaminophen) and rest may help with the symptoms.[8] As of April 2019, no vaccines have been approved for clinical use, however a number of vaccines are currently in clinical trials.[9][10][11] Zika can spread from a pregnant woman to her baby. This can result in microcephaly, severe brain malformations, and other birth defects.[12][13] Zika infections in adults may result rarely in Guillain–Barré syndrome.[14]
In January 2016, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued travel guidance on affected countries, including the use of enhanced precautions, and guidelines for pregnant women including considering postponing travel.[15][16] Other governments or health agencies also issued similar travel warnings,[17][18][19] while Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Ecuador, El Salvador, and Jamaica advised women to postpone getting pregnant until more is known about the risks.[18][20]
Virology
Zika virus belongs to the family
A
A longitudinal study shows that 6 hours after cells are infected with Zika virus, the vacuoles and mitochondria in the cells begin to swell. This swelling becomes so severe, it results in cell death, also known as paraptosis. This form of programmed cell death requires gene expression. IFITM3 is a trans-membrane protein in a cell that is able to protect it from viral infection by blocking virus attachment. Cells are most susceptible to Zika infection when levels of IFITM3 are low. Once the cell has been infected, the virus restructures the endoplasmic reticulum, forming the large vacuoles, resulting in cell death.[31]
There are two Zika lineages: the African lineage and the Asian lineage.
The Asian strain appears to have first evolved around 1928.[35]
Transmission
The vertebrate hosts of the virus were primarily
In 2015, news reports drew attention to the rapid spread of Zika in Latin America and the Caribbean.[42] At that time, the Pan American Health Organization published a list of countries and territories that experienced "local Zika virus transmission" comprising Barbados, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Martinique, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Puerto Rico, Saint Martin, Suriname, and Venezuela.[43][44][45] By August 2016, more than 50 countries had experienced active (local) transmission of Zika virus.[46]
Mosquito
Zika is primarily spread by the female Aedes aegypti mosquito, which is active mostly in the daytime.
The true extent of the vectors is still unknown. Zika has been detected in many more species of Aedes, along with Anopheles coustani, Mansonia uniformis, and Culex perfuscus, although this alone does not incriminate them as vectors.[48] To detect the presence of the virus usually requires genetic material to be analysed in a lab using the technique RT-PCR. A much cheaper and faster method involves shining a light at the head and thorax of the mosquito, and detecting chemical compounds characteristic of the virus using near-infrared spectroscopy.[50]
Transmission by A. albopictus, the tiger mosquito, was reported from a 2007 urban outbreak in Gabon, where it had newly invaded the country and become the primary vector for the concomitant chikungunya and dengue virus outbreaks.[51] New outbreaks can occur if a person carrying the virus travels to another region where A. albopictus is common.[52]
The potential societal risk of Zika can be delimited by the distribution of the mosquito species that transmit it. The global distribution of the most cited carrier of Zika, A. aegypti, is expanding due to global trade and travel.[53] A. aegypti distribution is now the most extensive ever recorded – on parts of all continents except Antarctica, including North America and even the European periphery (Madeira, the Netherlands, and the northeastern Black Sea coast).[54] A mosquito population capable of carrying Zika has been found in a Capitol Hill neighborhood of Washington, DC, and genetic evidence suggests they survived at least four consecutive winters in the region. The study authors conclude that mosquitos are adapting for persistence in a northern climate.[55] Zika virus appears to be contagious via mosquitoes for around a week after infection. The virus is thought to be infectious for a longer period of time after infection (at least 2 weeks) when transmitted via semen.[56][57]
Research into its ecological niche suggests that Zika may be influenced to a greater degree by changes in precipitation and temperature than dengue, making it more likely to be confined to tropical areas. However, rising global temperatures would allow for the disease vector to expand its range further north, allowing Zika to follow.[58]
Sexual
Zika can be transmitted from men and women to their sexual partners; most known cases involve transmission from symptomatic men to women.
Pregnancy
Zika virus can spread by vertical (or "mother-to-child") transmission, during pregnancy or at delivery.[12][65] An infection during pregnancy has been linked to changes in neuronal development of the unborn child.[66] Severe progressions of infection have been linked to the development of microcephaly in the unborn child, while mild infections potentially can lead to neurocognitive disorders later in life.[67][68][69] Congenital brain abnormalities other than microcephaly have also been reported after a Zika outbreak.[70] Studies in mice have suggested that maternal immunity to dengue virus may enhance fetal infection with Zika, worsen the microcephaly phenotype and/or enhance damage during pregnancy, but it is unknown whether this occurs in humans.[71][72]
Blood transfusion
As of April 2016[update], two cases of Zika transmission through blood transfusions have been reported globally, both from Brazil,[40] after which the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommended screening blood donors and deferring high-risk donors for 4 weeks.[73][74] A potential risk had been suspected based on a blood-donor screening study during the French Polynesian Zika outbreak, in which 2.8% (42) of donors from November 2013 and February 2014 tested positive for Zika RNA and were all asymptomatic at the time of blood donation. Eleven of the positive donors reported symptoms of Zika fever after their donation, but only three of 34 samples grew in culture.[75]
Pathogenesis
Zika virus replicates in the mosquito's midgut epithelial cells and then its salivary gland cells. After 5–10 days, the virus can be found in the mosquito's saliva. If the mosquito's saliva is inoculated into human skin, the virus can infect epidermal keratinocytes, skin fibroblasts in the skin and the Langerhans cells. The pathogenesis of the virus is hypothesized to continue with a spread to lymph nodes and the bloodstream.[21][76] Flaviviruses replicate in the cytoplasm, but Zika antigens have been found in infected cell nuclei.[77]
The viral protein numbered NS4A can lead to small head size (microcephaly) because it disrupts brain growth by hijacking a pathway which regulates growth of new neurons.[78] In fruit flies, both NS4A and the neighboring NS4B restrict eye growth.[79]
Zika fever
Zika fever (also known as Zika virus disease) is an illness caused by Zika virus.
Diagnosis is by testing the blood, urine, or saliva for the presence of Zika virus RNA when the person is sick.[80][83] In 2019, an improved diagnostic test, based on research from Washington University in St. Louis, that detects Zika infection in serum was granted market authorization by the FDA.[86]
Prevention involves decreasing mosquito bites in areas where the disease occurs, and proper use of condoms.
Treatment
It is advised, for an affected person with the zika virus, to drink a lot of water to stay hydrated, to lie down, and to treat the fever and agony with liquid solutions; taking drugs like acetaminophen or paracetamol helps to relieve fever and pain.[according to whom?] Referring to the US CDC it is not recommended to take anti-inflammatory and non-steroid drugs like aspirin for example.[89] If the patient affected is already taking treatment for another medical condition it is advisable to inform your attending physician before taking any other drug or additional treatment;[90]
Vaccine development
The World Health Organization has suggested that priority should be to develop inactivated vaccines and other nonlive vaccines, which are safe to use in pregnant women.[91]
As of March 2016[update], 18 companies and institutions were developing vaccines against Zika, but they state a vaccine is unlikely to be widely available for about 10 years.[91][92]
In June 2016, the FDA granted the first approval for a human clinical trial for a Zika vaccine.[93] In March 2017, a DNA vaccine was approved for phase-2 clinical trials. This vaccine consists of a small, circular piece of DNA, known as a plasmid, that expresses the genes for the Zika virus envelope proteins. As the vaccine does not contain the full sequence of the virus, it cannot cause infection.[94] As of April 2017, both subunit and inactivated vaccines have entered clinical trials.[95]
History
Virus isolation in monkeys and mosquitoes, 1947
The virus was first isolated in April 1947 from a
First evidence of human infection, 1952
Zika was first known to infect humans from the results of a serological survey in Uganda, published in 1952.[102] Of 99 human blood samples tested, 6.1% had neutralizing antibodies. As part of a 1954 outbreak investigation of jaundice suspected to be yellow fever, researchers reported isolation of the virus from a patient,[103] but the pathogen was later shown to be the closely related Spondweni virus.[104] Spondweni was also determined to be the cause of a self-inflicted infection in a researcher reported in 1956.[105]
Spread in equatorial Africa and to Asia, 1951–present
Subsequent serological studies in several African and Asian countries indicated the virus had been widespread within human populations in these regions.
Micronesia, 2007
In April 2007, the first outbreak outside of Africa and Asia occurred on the island of Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia, characterized by rash, conjunctivitis, and arthralgia, which was initially thought to be dengue, chikungunya, or Ross River disease.[111] Serum samples from patients in the acute phase of illness contained RNA of Zika. There were 49 confirmed cases, 59 unconfirmed cases, no hospitalizations, and no deaths.[112]
2013–2014
After October 2013 Oceania's first outbreak showed an estimated 11% population infected for French Polynesia that also presented with Guillain–Barre syndrome (GBS). The spread of ZIKV continued to New Caledonia, Easter Island, and the Cook Islands and where 1385 cases were confirmed by January 2014. During the same year, Easter Island acknowledged 51 cases. Australia began seeing cases in 2012. Research showed it was brought by travelers returning from Indonesia and other infected countries. New Zealand also experienced infections rate increases through returning foreign travelers. Oceania countries experiencing Zika today are New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Marshall Islands, American Samoa, Samoa, and Tonga.[113]
Between 2013 and 2014, further epidemics occurred in French Polynesia, Easter Island, the Cook Islands, and New Caledonia.[4]
Americas, 2015–present
There was an
A number of countries issued travel warnings, and the outbreak was expected to significantly impact the tourism industry.[6][120] Several countries have taken the unusual step of advising their citizens to delay pregnancy until more is known about the virus and its impact on fetal development.[20] With the 2016 Summer Olympics hosted in Rio de Janeiro, health officials worldwide voiced concerns over a potential crisis, both in Brazil and when international athletes and tourists returned home and possibly would spread the virus. Some researchers speculated that only one or two tourists might be infected during the three-week period, or approximately 3.2 infections per 100,000 tourists.[121] In November 2016, the World Health Organization declared that Zika virus was no longer a global emergency while noting that the virus still represents "a highly significant and a long-term problem".[122]
As of August 2017 the number of new Zika virus cases in the Americas had fallen dramatically.[123]
India, Bangladesh
On May 15, 2017, three cases of Zika virus infection in India were reported in the state of Gujarat.[124][125] By late 2018, there had been at least 159 cases in Rajasthan and 127 in Madhya Pradesh.[126]
In July 2021, the first case of Zika virus infection in the Indian state of Kerala was reported. After the first confirmed case, 19 other people who had previously presented symptoms were tested, and 13 of those had positive results, showing that Zika had been circulating in Kerala since at least May 2021.[127] By August 6th 2021, there had been 65 reported cases in Kerala.[128]
On October 22, 2021, an officer in the Indian Air Force in Kanpur tested positive for Zika virus, making it the first reported case in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.[129]
On 22 March 2016, Reuters reported that Zika was isolated from a 2014 blood sample of an elderly man in
East Asia
Between August and November 2016, 455 cases of Zika virus infection were confirmed in Singapore.[131][132]
In 2023, 722 Zika virus cases were reported in Thailand.
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This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
External links
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- "Animation on Zika". YouTube. Scientific Animations without Borders and the World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 20 December 2021.
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