Buddhist art

Buddhist art

Representation of the Buddha in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, 1st century CE

Seated Maitreya sculpture, Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, c. 1250–1350

Thangka of Shakyamuni Buddha, Tibet, c. 18th century

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Buddhist art is

As Buddhism spread and evolved in each new host country, Buddhist art followed in its footsteps. It developed to the north through

Initially the emphasis was on devotional statues of the historical Buddha, as well as detailed scenes in relief of his life, and former lives, but as the Buddhist pantheon developed devotional images of bodhisattvas and other figures became common subjects in themselves in Northern Buddhist art, rather than just attendants of the Buddha, and by the late first millennium came to predominate.

History

Pre-iconic phase (5th–1st century BCE)

During the 2nd to 1st century BCE, sculptures became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddha's life and teachings. These took the form of votive tablets or friezes, usually in relation to the decoration of stupas. Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human form, but only through Buddhist symbolism. This period may have been aniconic.

Artists were reluctant to depict the Buddha anthropomorphically, and developed sophisticated aniconic symbols to avoid doing so (even in narrative scenes where other human figures would appear). This tendency remained as late as the 2nd century CE in the southern parts of India, in the art of the

The earliest works of Buddhist art in India date back to the 1st century BCE. The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya became a model for similar structures in Burma and Indonesia. The frescoes at Sigiriya are said to be even older than the Ajanta Caves paintings.^[3]

Iconic phase (1st century CE – present)

Chinese historical sources and mural paintings in the

Anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha started to emerge from the 1st century CE in

Hellenistic culture was introduced in Gandhara during the conquests of

Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma.^[4]

After the overthrow of the Mauryan Empire by the

Gandharan Buddhist sculpture displays Hellenistic artistic influence in the forms of human figures and ornament. Figures were much larger than any known from India previously, and also more naturalistic, and new details included wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes and sandals, and acanthus leaf ornament.^{[citation needed]}

• 
  Mathura school Buddha, Northern Satraps, end of 1st century CE^[7]
• 
  Over life-size figure of the

  Padmapani, cave 1, Ajanta Caves

  , 5th century

The art of Mathura tends to be based on an Indian tradition, exemplified by the anthropomorphic representation of divinities such as the Yaksas, although in a style rather archaic compared to the later representations of the Buddha. The Mathuran school contributed clothes covering the left shoulder of thin muslin, the wheel on the palm, the lotus seat.^{[citation needed]}

Mathura and Gandhara also influenced each other. During their artistic florescence, the two regions were even united politically under the Kushans, both being capitals of the empire. It is still a matter of debate whether the anthropomorphic representations of Buddha was essentially a result of a local evolution of Buddhist art at Mathura, or a consequence of Greek cultural influence in Gandhara through the Greco-Buddhist syncretism.

This iconic art was characterized from the start by a realistic idealism, combining realistic human features, proportions, attitudes and attributes, together with a sense of perfection and serenity reaching to the divine. This expression of the Buddha as both man and God became the iconographic canon for subsequent Buddhist art.^{[citation needed]}

Remains of early Buddhist painting in India are vanishingly rare, with the later phases of the Ajanta Caves giving the great majority of surviving work, created over a relatively short up to about 480 CE. These are highly sophisticated works, evidently produced in a well-developed tradition, probably painting secular work in palaces as much as religious subjects.

Buddhist art continued to develop in India for a few more centuries. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the Gupta period (4th to 6th century CE) to reach a very high fineness of execution and delicacy in the modeling. The art of the Gupta school was extremely influential almost everywhere in the rest of Asia. At the end of the 12th century CE, Buddhism in its full glory came to be preserved only in the Himalayan regions in India. These areas, helped by their location, were in greater contact with Tibet and China – for example the art and traditions of Ladakh bear the stamp of Tibetan and Chinese influence.

As Buddhism expanded outside of India from the 1st century CE, its original artistic package blended with other artistic influences, leading to a progressive differentiation among the countries adopting the faith.

• A Northern route was established from the 1st century CE through Central Asia, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, in which Mahayana Buddhism prevailed.
• A Southern route, where Theravada Buddhism dominated, went through Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos.

Northern Buddhist art

The

Central Asian missionary efforts along the Silk Road were accompanied by a flux of artistic influences, visible in the development of Serindian art from the 2nd through the 11th century in the Tarim Basin, modern Xinjiang. Serindian art often derives from the Greco-Buddhist art of the Gandhara district of what is now Pakistan, combining Indian, Greek and Roman influences. Silk Road Greco-Buddhist iconography may have influenced the Japanese god Fūjin.^[8]

The art of the northern route was also highly influenced by the development of

Buddhist art in

Although Islamic rule was limited tolerant of other religions "of the Book", it showed zero tolerance for Buddhism, which was perceived as a religion depending on "idolatry". Human figurative art forms also being prohibited under Islam, Buddhist art suffered numerous attacks, which culminated with the systematic destructions by the Taliban regime. The Buddhas of Bamyan, the sculptures of Hadda, and many of the remaining artifacts at the Afghanistan museum have been destroyed.

The multiple conflicts since the 1980s also have led to a systematic pillage of archaeological sites apparently in the hope of reselling in the international market what artifacts could be found.

Central Asia

Thereafter, the expansion of Buddhism to the North led to the formation of Buddhist communities and even Buddhist kingdoms in the oasis of Central Asia. Some Silk Road cities consisted almost entirely of Buddhist stupas and monasteries, and it seems that one of their main objectives was to welcome and service travelers between East and West.

The eastern part of Central Asia (

China

Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century CE, and introduced new types of art into China, particularly in the area of statuary. Receiving this distant religion, strong Chinese traits were incorporated into Buddhist art.

Northern Dynasties

In the 5th to 6th centuries, the

Sites preserving Northern Wei Dynasty Buddhist sculpture:

• Yungang Grottoes, Shanxi
• Longmen Grottoes, Henan
• Bingling Temple, Gansu

Tang Dynasty—Qing Dynasty

Following a transition under the

After the Tang dynasty, Buddhism continued to receive official patronage in several states during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, which continued under the successive Liao, Jin, Song, Yuan and Ming dynasties. This was marked by construction of new monumental Buddhist artwork at grottoes, such as the massive Buddha sculptures at the Dazu Rock Carvings in Sichuan province, as well as at temples, such as the giant esoteric statues of the Bodhisattva Guanyin in Longxing Temple and Dule Temple.^[9][10][11] The various Chinese Buddhist traditions, such as Tiantai and Huayan, experienced revivals. Chan Buddhism, in particular, rose to great prominence under the Song dynasty. Early paintings by Chan monks tended to eschew the meticulous realism of Gongbi painting in favour of vigorous, monochrome paintings, attempting to express the impact of enlightenment through their brushwork.^[12] The rise of Neo-Confucianism under Zhu Xi in the twelfth century resulted in considerable criticism of the monk-painters by the literati. Despite this, Chan ink paintings continued to be practiced by monastics through the Yuan (1271–1368) and Ming (1368–1644) dynasties well into the Qing (1644–1912) dynasty.^[13][14][15] Aside from Chan ink paintings, other forms of painting also proliferated, especially during the Ming dynasty, such as the Water and Land Ritual paintings and mural art which depict various Buddhist divinities and other figures.^[16]

During the Qing Dynasty, Manchu emperors supported Buddhist practices for a range of political and personal reasons. The

The first of the Three Kingdoms of Korea to officially receive Buddhism was Goguryeo in 372.^[24] However, Chinese records and the use of Buddhist motifs in Goguryeo murals indicate the introduction of Buddhism earlier than the official date.^[25] The Baekje Kingdom officially recognized Buddhism in 384.^[24] The Silla Kingdom, isolated and with no easy sea or land access to China, officially adopted Buddhism in 535 although the foreign religion was known in the kingdom due to the work of Goguryeo monks since the early 5th century.^[26] The introduction of Buddhism stimulated the need for artisans to create images for veneration, architects for temples, and the literate for the Buddhist sutras and transformed Korean civilization. Particularly important in the transmission of sophisticated art styles to the Korean kingdoms was the art of the "barbarian" Tuoba, a clan of non-Han Chinese Xianbei people who established the Northern Wei Dynasty in China in 386. The Northern Wei style was particularly influential in the art of the Goguryeo and Baekje. Baekje artisans later transmitted this style along with Southern Dynasty elements and distinct Korean elements to Japan. Korean artisans were highly selective of the styles they incorporated and combined different regional styles together to create a specific Korean Buddhist art style.^[27][28]

Buddhism in the Three Kingdoms period stimulated massive temple-building projects, such as the Mireuksa Temple in the Baekje Kingdom and the Hwangnyongsa Temple in Silla. Baekje architects were famed for their skill and were instrumental in building the massive nine-story pagoda at Hwangnyongsa and early Buddhist temples in Yamato Japan such as Hōkō-ji (Asuka-dera) and Hōryū-ji.^[31] 6th century Korean Buddhist art exhibited the cultural influences of China and India but began to show distinctive indigenous characteristics.^[32] These indigenous characteristics can be seen in early Buddhist art in Japan and some early Japanese Buddhist sculpture is now believed to have originated in Korea, particularly from Baekje, or Korean artisans who immigrated to Yamato Japan. Particularly, the semi-seated Maitreya form was adapted into a highly developed Korean style which was transmitted to Japan as evidenced by the Koryu-ji Miroku Bosatsu and the Chugu-ji Siddhartha statues. Although many historians portray Korea as a mere transmitter of Buddhism, the Three Kingdoms, and particularly Baekje, were instrumental as active agents in the introduction and formation of a Buddhist tradition in Japan in 538 or 552.^[33]

Unified Silla

During the

The fall of the Unified Silla Dynasty and the establishment of the Goryeo Dynasty in 918 indicates a new period of Korean Buddhist art. The Goryeo kings also lavishly sponsored Buddhism and Buddhist art flourished, especially Buddhist paintings and illuminated sutras written in gold and silver ink. [1]. The crowning achievement of this period is the carving of approximately 80,000 woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana which was done twice.

Joseon Dynasty

The

Before the introduction of Buddhism,

The cultural exchange between India and Japan was not direct, as Japan received Buddhism through Korea, China, Central Asia and eventually India. The Japanese discovered Buddhism in the 6th century when missionary monks travelled to the islands together with numerous scriptures and works of art. The cultural contact between Indian Dharmic civilization and Japan through the adoption of Buddhist ideas and aesthetic has contributed to the development of a national cultural order in the subsequent century.[34] The Buddhist religion was adopted by the state in the following century. Being geographically at the end of the Silk Road, Japan was able to preserve many aspects of Buddhism at the very time it was disappearing in India, and being suppressed in Central Asia.

From 711, numerous temples and monasteries were built in the capital city of

The creation of Japanese Buddhist art was especially rich between the 8th and 13th centuries during the periods of Nara, Heian and Kamakura. Japan developed an extremely rich figurative art for the pantheon of Buddhist deities, sometimes combined with Hindu and Shinto influences. This art can be very varied, creative and bold. Jōchō is said to be one of the greatest Buddhist sculptors not only in Heian period but also in the history of Buddhist statues in Japan. Jōchō redefined the body shape of Buddha statues by perfecting the technique of "yosegi zukuri" (寄木造り) which is a combination of several woods. The peaceful expression and graceful figure of the Buddha statue that he made completed a Japanese style of sculpture of Buddha statues called "Jōchō yō" (Jōchō style, 定朝様) and determined the style of Japanese Buddhist statues of the later period. His achievement dramatically raised the social status of busshi (Buddhist sculptor) in Japan.^[35]

In the

• 
  The Asura in

  Nara

  (734). National Treasure.
• 
  Senju Kannon by Tankei. Sanjūsangen-dō, 1254. National Treasure.
• 
  Scroll calligraphy of Bodhidharma, by Hakuin Ekaku (1686 to 1769)

Tibet and Bhutan

In 10th to 11th centuries, Tabo Monastery in Himachal Pradesh, Northern India (at that time part of Western Tibet Kingdom) serves an important role as an intermediary between India and Tibet cultural exchange, especially Buddhist art and philosophy. Notable example of Tibetan Buddhist art in Tabo is its exquisite frescoes.^[39]

Vietnam

Chinese influence was predominant in the north of Vietnam (Tonkin) between the 1st and 9th centuries, and Confucianism and Mahayana Buddhism were prevalent. Overall, the art of Vietnam has been strongly influenced by Chinese Buddhist art.

In the south thrived the former kingdom of

• 
  The boy Buddha rising up from lotus. Crimson and gilded wood, Trần - Hồ dynasties, Vietnam, 14th–15th century
• 
  The thousand-armed

  Quan Âm was carved in the Lê - Nguyễn dynasties, currently on display at the French Guimet Museum

By the 8th to 9th century, Shailendran Buddhist art were developed and flourished in Mataram Kingdom of Central Java, Indonesia. This period marked the renaissance of Buddhist art in Java, as numerous exquisite monuments were built, including Kalasan, Manjusrigrha, Mendut and Borobudur stone mandala. The traditions would continue to the 13th century Singhasari Buddhist art of East Java.

From the 9th to the 13th centuries, Southeast Asia had very powerful empires and became extremely active in Buddhist architectural and artistic creation. The

According to tradition, Buddhism was introduced in Sri Lanka in the 3rd century BCE by Indian missionaries under the guidance of Thera Mahinda, the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. Prior to the expansion of Buddhism, the indigenous population of Sri Lanka lived in an animistic world full of superstition. The assimilation and conversion of the various pre-Buddhist beliefs was a slow process. In order to gain a foothold among the rural population, Buddhism needed to assimilate the various categories of spirits and other supernatural beliefs.^{[citation needed]} The earliest monastic complex was the Mahāvihāra at Anurādhapura founded by Devānampiyatissa and presented to Mahinda Thera. The Mahāvihāra became the centre of the orthodox Theravāda doctrine and its supreme position remained unchallenged until the foundation of the Abhayagiri Vihāra around 89 BCE by Vaţţagāmaņĩ.

The Abhayagiri Vihāra became the seat of the reformed Mahāyāna doctrines. The rivalry between the monks of the Mahāvihāra and the Abhayagiri led to a further split and the foundation of the Jetavanarama near the Mahāvihāra. The main feature of Sinhala Buddhism was its division into three major groups, or nikāyas, named after the three main monastic complexes at Anurādhapura; the Mahāvihāra, the Abhayagiri, and the Jetavanārāma. This was the result in the deviations in the disciplinary rules (vinaya) and doctrinal disputes. All the other monasteries of Sri Lanka owed ecclesiastical allegiance to one of the three. Sri Lanka is famous for its creations of Buddhist sculptures made of stone and cast in bronze alloy.^[41]

Myanmar

A neighbor of India, Myanmar (Burma) was naturally strongly influenced by the eastern part of Indian territory. The Mon of southern Burma are said to have been converted to Buddhism around 200 BCE under the proselytizing of the Indian king Ashoka, before the schism between Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism.

Early Buddhist temples are found, such as Beikthano in central Myanmar, with dates between the 1st and the 5th centuries. The Buddhist art of the Mons was especially influenced by the Indian art of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, and their mannerist style spread widely in Southeast Asia following the expansion of the Mon Empire between the 5th and 8th centuries.

Later, thousands of Buddhist temples were built at Bagan, the capital, between the 11th and 13th centuries, and around 2,000 of them are still standing. Beautiful jeweled statues of the Buddha are remaining from that period. Creation managed to continue despite the seizure of the city by the Mongols in 1287.

During the

During the Konbaung dynasty, at the end of the 18th century, the Mandalay style of the Buddha image emerged, a style that remains popular to this day.^[43] There was a marked departure from the Innwa style, and the Buddha's face is much more natural, fleshy, with naturally-slanted eyebrows, slightly slanted eyes, thicker lips, and a round hair bun at the top. Buddha images in this style can be found reclining, standing or sitting.^[44] Mandalay-style Buddhas wear flowing, draped robes.

Another common style of Buddha images is the Shan style, from the Shan people, who inhabit the highlands of Myanmar. In this style, the Buddha is depicted with angular features, a large and prominently pointed nose, a hair bun tied similar to Thai styles, and a small, thin mouth.^[45]

• 
  A Mandalay-style statue of Buddha
• 
  Scenes from the life of the Buddha in an 18th-century Burmese watercolour

Cambodia

The Thai Buddhist art encompasses period for more than a millennia, from pre Thai culture of Dvaravati and Srivijaya, to the first Thai capital of Thai 13th century Sukhothai, all the way to succeeding Thai kingdoms of Ayutthaya and Rattanakosin.[47]

From the 1st to the 7th centuries, Buddhist art in

Like the rest of Southeast Asia,

• 
  A Buddha in Borobudur
• 
  The statue of Prajñāpāramitā from Singhasari, East Java, on a lotus throne

Philippines

Philippine archaeology has found Buddhist artifacts,[53]^[54] The style exhibits Vajrayāna influence,^[55][56][57] most of them dated to the 9th century. They reflect the iconography of the Śrīvijayan empire's Vajrayāna and its influences on the Philippines's early states. The artifacts' distinct features point to their production in the islands, and suggest artisan's or goldsmith's knowledge of Buddhist culture and literature, and the presence of Buddhist believers. The find-spots extend from the Agusan-Surigao area in Mindanao island to Cebu, Palawan, and Luzon islands. Hence, Vajrayāna ritualism must have spread far and wide throughout the archipelago.

Roman Egypt

The Berenike Buddha is a rare example of Buddhist art that was discovered in 2018–2022 in an archaeological excavation in the ancient harbour of Berenike, Egypt. The statue was discovered in the forecourt of an early Roman period temple dedicated to the Goddess Isis.^[58][59]

The statue is the first statue of the Buddha to be ever found west of

Various fragmentary parts of Buddha statues (torsos, heads) had already been discovered at Berenike in 2019, some made of local gypsum.^[62][63]

Contemporary Buddhist art

Many contemporary artists have made use of Buddhist themes. Notable examples are Bill Viola, in his video installations,^[64] John Connell, in sculpture,^[65] and Allan Graham in his multi-media "Time is Memory".^[66]

In the UK

• 
  The Final Release, by Abanindranath Tagore. Illustration from the book Buddha and the gospel of Buddhism (1916)
• 
  Quan Âm in contemporary Vietnamese art

• Buddharupa
• Buddhist architecture
• Buddhist music
• Buddhist symbolism
• Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta
• Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film
• Early Buddhist Texts
• Gautama Buddha & Buddhism
• Great Renunciation & Four sights
• Leela Attitude
• Mahaparinibbana Sutta
• Māravijaya Attitude
• Meditation Attitude
• Naga Prok Attitude
• Physical characteristics of the Buddha
• Relics associated with Buddha
• Samaññaphala Sutta

Citations

General and cited references

• Gibson, Agnes C.; Jas. Burgess (1901). Buddhist Art in India (Revised and Enlarged ed.). London: Bernard Quaritch. Tr. from the 'Handbook' of Prof. Albert Grunwedel.
• Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea: A Religious History. UK: Routledge.
  ISBN 0-7007-1605-X
  .
• von Schroeder, Ulrich (1990). Buddhist Sculptures of Sri Lanka. Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications.
  ISBN 962-7049-05-0
  . (752 p.; 1620 illustrations.)
• von Schroeder, Ulrich (1992). The Golden Age of Sculpture in Sri Lanka: Masterpieces of Buddhist and Hindu Bronzes from Museums in Sri Lanka. Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications.
  OCLC 27648216
  . Catalogue of the exhibition held at the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Washington, D.C., 1 November 1992 – 26 September 1993.

Further reading

• ISBN 978-0-230-62125-1
  .
• D. G. Godse's writings in Marathi.^{[full citation needed}
  ]
• Jarrige, Jean-François (2001). Arts asiatiques- Guimet. Paris: Réunion des musées nationaux : Guimet, Musée national des arts asiatiques.
  ISBN 2-7118-3897-8
  .
• Kossak, S.M.; et al. (1998). Sacred visions: early paintings from central Tibet. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
  ISBN 978-0870998614
  .
• Along the ancient silk routes: Central Asian art from the West Berlin State Museums. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1982.
  ISBN 978-0870993008
  .
• Arts of Korea. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1998.
  ISBN 0870998501.^{[dead link}
  ]
• Lee, Sherman (2003). A History of Far Eastern Art (5th ed.). New York: Prentice Hall.
  ISBN 0-13-183366-9
  .
• Leidy, Denise Patry & Strahan, Donna (2010). Wisdom embodied: Chinese Buddhist and Daoist sculpture in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
  ISBN 978-1588393999
  .
• Lerner, Martin (1984). The flame and the lotus: Indian and Southeast Asian art from the Kronos collections. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
  ISBN 0870993747
  .
• Scarre, Chris, ed. (1991). Past Worlds: The Times Atlas of Archeology. London: Times Books Limited.
  ISBN 0-7230-0306-8
  .
• Huntington, Susan L. (Winter 1990). "Early Buddhist Art and the Theory of Aniconism". Art Journal. 9 (4: New Approaches to South Asian Art): 401–408.
  JSTOR 777142
  .
• von Schroeder, Ulrich (1981). Indo-Tibetan Bronzes. Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd.
• von Schroeder, Ulrich (2001). Buddhist Sculptures in Tibet. Vol. One: India & Nepal; Vol. Two: Tibet & China. Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd.
• Watt, James C. Y.; et al. (2004). China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200–750 AD. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
  ISBN 1588391264
  .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Buddhist art.

• The Herbert Offen Research Collection of the Phillips Library at the Peabody Essex Museum (archived 30 January 2010)