Cichlid
Cichlid Temporal range:
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A mbuna | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Actinopterygii |
Clade: | Percomorpha |
(unranked): | Ovalentaria |
Order: | Cichliformes |
Family: | Cichlidae Bonaparte, 1835 |
Subfamilies and Tribes | |
Alternate taxonomy:
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Cichlids /ˈsɪklɪdz/[a] are
Many cichlids, particularly
All cichlids practice some form of parental care for their eggs and fry, usually in the form of guarding the eggs and fry or mouthbrooding.
Anatomy and appearance
Cichlids span a wide range of body sizes, from species as small as 2.5 cm (1 in) in length (e.g., female
Cichlids share a single key trait - the fusion of the lower
The features that distinguish them from the other families in the Labroidei include:[17]
- A single nostril on each side of the forehead, instead of two
- No bony shelf below the orbit of the eye
- Division of the lateral line organ into two sections, one on the upper half of the flank and a second along the midline of the flank from about halfway along the body to the base of the tail (except for genera Teleogramma and Gobiocichla)
- A distinctively shaped otolith
- The small intestine's left-side exit from the stomach instead of its right side as in other Labroidei
Taxonomy
As an example of the classification problems, Kullander
Phylogeny derived from morphological characters shows differences at the genus level with phylogeny based on genetic loci.[22] A consensus remains that the Cichlidae as a family are monophyletic.[23]
In cichlid taxonomy, dentition was formerly used as a classifying characteristic, but this was complicated because in many cichlids, tooth shapes change with age, due to wear, and cannot be relied upon. Genome sequencing and other technologies transformed cichlid taxonomy.
Alternatively, all cichlid species native to the new world, can be classified under the subfamily Cichlinae, while Etroplinae can classify all cichlid species native to the old world.
Distribution and habitat
Cichlids are one of the largest vertebrate families in the world. They are most diverse in Africa and South America. Africa alone is host to at least an estimated 1,600 species.
Although most cichlids are found at relatively shallow depths, several exceptions do exist. The deepest known occurrences are Trematocara at more than 300 m (1,000 ft) below the surface in Lake Tanganyika.[32] Others found in relatively deep waters include species such as Alticorpus macrocleithrum and Pallidochromis tokolosh down to 150 m (500 ft) below the surface in Lake Malawi,[33][34] and the whitish (nonpigmented) and blind Lamprologus lethops, which is believed to live as deep as 160 m (520 ft) below the surface in the Congo River.[35]
Cichlids are less commonly found in
With the exception of the species from Cuba, Hispaniola, and Madagascar, cichlids have not reached any oceanic island and have a predominantly
Ecology
This article needs additional citations for verification. (October 2014) |
Feeding
Within the cichlid family, carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, planktivores, and detritivores are known, meaning the Cichlidae encompass essentially the full range of food consumption possible in the animal kingdom. Various species have morphological adaptations for specific food sources,[43] but most cichlids consume a wider variety of foods based on availability. Carnivorous cichlids can be further divided into piscivorous and molluscivorous, since the morphology and hunting behavior differ greatly between the two categories. Piscivorous cichlids eat other fish, fry, larvae, and eggs. Some species eat the offspring of mouthbrooders by head-ramming, wherein the hunter shoves its head into the mouth of a female to expel her young and eat them.[44] Molluscivorous cichlids have several hunting strategies amongst the varieties within the group. Lake Malawi cichlids consume substrate and filter it out through their gill rakers to eat the mollusks that were in the substrate. Gill rakers are finger-like structures that line the gills of some fish to catch any food that might escape through their gills.[45]
Many cichlids are primarily
Other cichlids are
.Other cichlids are
This variety of feeding styles has helped cichlids to inhabit similarly varied habitats. Its pharyngeal teeth (in the throat) afford cichlids so many "niche" feeding strategies, because the jaws pick and hold food, while the pharyngeal teeth crush the prey.
Behavior
Aggression
Aggressive behavior in cichlids is ritualized and consists of multiple displays used to seek confrontation while being involved in evaluation of competitors,
Mating
Cichlids mate either
Most adult male cichlids, specifically in the cichlid tribe Haplochromini, exhibit a unique pattern of oval-shaped color dots on their anal fins. These phenomena, known as egg spots, aid in the mouthbrooding mechanisms of cichlids. The egg spots consist of carotenoid-based pigment cells, which indicate a high cost to the organism, when considering that fish are not able to synthesize their own carotenoids.[64]
The mimicry of egg spots is used by males for the fertilization process. Mouthbrooding females lay eggs and immediately snatch them up with their mouths. Over millions of years, male cichlids have evolved egg spots to initiate the fertilization process more efficiently.[65] When the females are snatching up the eggs into their mouth, the males gyrate their anal fins, which illuminates the egg spots on his tail. Afterwards, the female, believing these are her eggs, places her mouth to the anal fin (specifically the genital papilla) of the male, which is when he discharges sperm into her mouth and fertilizes the eggs.[64]
The genuine color of egg spots is a yellow, red, or orange inner circle with a colorless ring surrounding the shape. Through phylogenetic analysis, using the mitochondrial ND2 gene, the true egg spots are thought to have evolved in the common ancestor of the Astatoreochromis lineage and the modern Haplochrominis species. This ancestor was most likely riverine in origin, based on the most parsimonious representation of habitat type in the cichlid family.[66] The presence of egg spots in a turbid riverine environment would seem particularly beneficial and necessary for intraspecies communication.[66]
Two pigmentation genes are found to be associated with egg-spot patterning and color arrangement. These are fhl2-a and fhl2-b, which are paralogs.[65] These genes aid in pattern formation and cell-fate determination in early embryonic development. The highest expression of these genes was temporally correlated with egg-spot formation. A short, interspersed, repetitive element was also seen to be associated with egg spots. Specifically, it was evident upstream of the transcriptional start site of fhl2 in only Haplochrominis species with egg spots[65]
Brood care
Pit spawning in cichlids
Pit spawning, also referred to as substrate breeding, is a behavior in cichlid fish in which a fish builds a pit in the sand or ground, where a pair court and consequently spawn.[67] Many different factors go into this behavior of pit spawning, including female choice of the male and pit size, as well as the male defense of the pits once they are dug in the sand.[68]
Cichlids are often divided into two main groups: mouthbrooders and substrate brooders. Different parenting investment levels and behaviors are associated with each type of reproduction.[69] As pit spawning is a reproductive behavior, many different physiological changes occur in the cichlid while this process is occurring that interfere with social interaction.[70] Different kinds of species that pit spawn, and many different morphological changes occur because of this behavioral experience.[67]
Pit spawning is an evolved behavior across the cichlid group. Phylogenetic evidence from cichlids in Lake Tanganyika could be helpful in uncovering the evolution of their reproductive behaviors.[71] Several important behaviors are associated with pit spawning, including parental care, food provisioning,[72] and brood guarding.[73]
Mouth brooding vs. pit spawning
One of the differences studied in African cichlids is reproductive behavior. Some species pit spawn and some are known as mouth brooders. Mouthbrooding is a reproductive technique where the fish scoop up eggs and fry for protection.[69] While this behavior differs from species to species in the details, the general basis of the behavior is the same. Mouthbrooding also affects how they choose their mates and breeding grounds. In a 1995 study, Nelson found that in pit-spawning females choose males for mating based on the size of the pit that they dig, as well as some of the physical characteristics seen in the males.[68] Pit spawning also differs from mouth brooding in the size and postnatal care exhibited. Eggs that have been hatched from pit-spawning cichlids are usually smaller than those of mouthbrooders. Pit-spawners' eggs are usually around 2 mm, while mouthbrooders are typically around 7 mm. While different behaviors take place postnatally between mouthbrooders and pit spawners, some similarities exist. Females in both mouthbrooders and pit-spawning cichlids take care of their young after they are hatched. In some cases, both parents exhibit care, but the female always cares for the eggs and newly hatched fry.[74]
Pit spawning process
Many species of cichlids use pit spawning, but one of the less commonly studied species that exhibits this behavior is the Neotropical Cichlasoma dimerus. This fish is a substrate breeder that displays biparental care after the fry have hatched from their eggs. One study[67] examined reproductive and social behaviors of this species to see how they accomplished their pit spawning, including different physiological factors such as hormone levels, color changes, and plasma cortisol levels. The entire spawning process could take about 90 minutes and 400~800 eggs could be laid. The female deposits about 10 eggs at a time, attaching them to the spawning surface, which may be a pit constructed on the substrate or another surface. The number of eggs laid was correlated to the space available on the substrate. Once the eggs were attached, the male swam over the eggs and fertilized them. The parents would then dig pits in the sand, 10–20 cm wide and 5–10 cm deep, where larvae were transferred after hatching. Larvae began swimming 8 days after fertilization and parenting behaviors and some of the physiological factors measured changed.
Color changes
In the same study, color changes were present before and after the pit spawning occurred. For example, after the larvae were transferred and the pits were beginning to be protected, their fins turned a dark grey color.[67] In another study, of the rainbow cichlid, Herotilapia multispinosa,[70] color changes occurred throughout the spawning process. Before spawning, the rainbow cichlid was an olive color with grey bands. Once spawning behaviors started, the body and fins of the fish became a more golden color. When the eggs were finished being laid, the pelvic fin all the way back to the caudal fin turned to a darker color and blackened in both the males and the females.[70]
Pit sizes
Females prefer a bigger pit size when choosing where to lay eggs.[68] Differences are seen in the sizes of pits that created, as well as a change in the morphology of the pits.[75] Evolutionary differences between species of fish may cause them to either create pits or castles when spawning. The differences were changes in the way that each species fed, their macrohabitats, and the abilities of their sensory systems.[75]
Evolution
Cichlids are renowned for their recent, rapid evolutionary radiation, both across the entire clade and within different communities across separate habitats.[69][71][75][76][77][78] Within their phylogeny, many parallel instances are seen of lineages evolving to the same trait and multiple cases of reversion to an ancestral trait.
The family Cichlidae arose between 80 and 100 million years ago within the order Perciformes (perch-like fishes).[76] Cichlidae can be split into a few groups based on their geographic location: Madagascar, Indian, African, and Neotropical (or South American). The most famous and diverse group, the African cichlids, can be further split either into Eastern and Western varieties, or into groups depending on which lake the species is from: Lake Malawi, Lake Victoria, or Lake Tanganyika.[76][77] Of these subgroups, the Madagascar and Indian cichlids are the most basal and least diverse.[citation needed]
Of the African cichlids, the West African or Lake Tanganyika cichlids are the most basal.[71][76] Cichlids' common ancestor is believed to have been a spit-spawning species.[77] Both Madagascar and Indian cichlids retain this feature. However, of the African cichlids, all extant substrate brooding species originate solely from Lake Tanganyika.[69][77] The ancestor of the Lake Malawi and Lake Victoria cichlids were mouthbrooders. Similarly, only around 30% of South American cichlids are thought to retain the ancestral substrate-brooding trait. Mouthbrooding is thought to have evolved individually up to 14 times, and a return to substrate brooding as many as three separate times between both African and Neotropical species.[77]
Associated behaviors
Cichlids have a great variety of behaviors associated with substrate brooding, including courtship and parental care alongside the brooding and nest-building behaviors needed for pit spawning. Cichlids' behavior typically revolves around establishing and defending territories when not courting, brooding, or raising young. Encounters between males and males or females and females are agonistic, while an encounter between a male and female leads to courtship.[79] Courtship in male cichlids follows the establishment of some form of territory, sometimes coupled with building a bower to attract mates.[68][75][79] After this, males may attempt to attract female cichlids to their territories by a variety of lekking display strategies or otherwise seek out females of their species.[68] However, cichlids, at the time of spawning, undergo a behavioral change such that they become less receptive to outside interactions.[79] This is often coupled with some physiological change in appearance.[67][70][79]
Brood care
Cichlids can have maternal, paternal, or biparental care. Maternal care is most common among mouthbrooders, but cichlids' common ancestor is thought to exhibit paternal-only care.[77] Other individuals outside of the parents may also play a role in raising young; in the biparental daffodil cichlid (Neolamprologus pulcher), closely related satellite males, those males that surround other males' territories and attempt to mate with female cichlids in the area, help rear the primary males' offspring and their own.[80]
A common form of brood care involves food provisioning. For example, females of lyretail cichlids (Neolamprologus modabu) dig at sandy substrate more to push nutritional detritus and zooplankton into the surrounding water. Adult of N. modabu perform this strategy to collect food for themselves, but dig more when offspring are present, likely to feed their fry.[73][81] This substrate-disruption strategy is rather common and can also be seen in convict cichlids (Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum).[72][81] Other cichlids have an ectothermal mucus that they grow and feed to their young, while still others chew and distribute caught food to offspring. These strategies, however, are less common in pit-spawning cichlids.[81]
Cichlids have highly organized breeding activities.
The species Neolamprologus pulcher uses a cooperative breeding system, in which one breeding pair has many helpers that are subordinate to the dominant breeders.
Parental care falls into one of four categories:[86] substrate or open brooders, secretive cave brooders (also known as guarding speleophils[87]), and at least two types of mouthbrooders, ovophile mouthbrooders and larvophile mouthbrooders.[88]
Open brooding
Open- or substrate-brooding cichlids lay their eggs in the open, on rocks, leaves, or logs. Examples of open-brooding cichlids include
Cave brooding
Secretive cave-spawning cichlids lay their eggs in caves, crevices, holes, or
Ovophile mouthbrooding
Ovophile mouthbrooders incubate their eggs in their mouths as soon as they are laid, and frequently mouthbrood free-swimming fry for several weeks. Examples include many
Larvophile mouthbrooding
Larvophile mouthbrooders lay eggs in the open or in a cave and take the hatched larvae into the mouth. Examples include some variants of
Speciation
Cichlids provide scientists with a unique perspective of speciation, having become extremely diverse in the recent geological past, those of Lake Victoria actually within the last 10,000 to 15,000 years, a small fraction of the millions taken for Galápagos finch speciation in Darwin's textbook case.[92] Some of the contributing factors to their diversification are believed to be the various forms of prey processing displayed by cichlid pharyngeal jaw apparatus. These different jaw apparatus allow for a broad range of feeding strategies, including algae scraping, snail crushing, planktivory, piscivory, and insectivory.[93] Some cichlids can also show phenotypic plasticity in their pharyngeal jaws, which can also help lead to speciation. In response to different diets or food scarcity, members of the same species can display different jaw morphologies that are better suited to different feeding strategies. As species members begin to concentrate around different food sources and continue their lifecycle, they most likely spawn with like individuals. This can reinforce the jaw morphology and given enough time, create new species.[94] Such a process can happen through allopatric speciation, whereby species diverge according to different selection pressures in different geographical areas, or through sympatric speciation, by which new species evolve from a common ancestor while remaining in the same area. In Lake Apoyo in Nicaragua, Amphilophus zaliosus and its sister species Amphilophus citrinellus display many of the criteria needed for sympatric speciation.[95] In the African rift lake system, cichlid species in numerous distinct lakes evolved from a shared hybrid swarm.[91]
Population status
In 2010, the
Lake Victoria
Because of the introduced
By far the largest Lake Victoria group is the haplochromine cichlids, with more than 500 species, but at least 200 of these (about 40%) have become extinct,
Food and game fish
Although cichlids are mostly small- to medium-sized, many are notable as food and game fishes. With few thick rib bones and tasty flesh,
Tilapia
The most important food cichlids, however, are the
Farmed tilapia production is about 1,500,000 tonnes (1,700,000 short tons) annually, with an estimated value of US$1.8 billion,[107] about equal to that of salmon and trout.
Unlike those carnivorous fish, tilapia can feed on algae or any plant-based food. This reduces the cost of tilapia farming, reduces fishing pressure on prey species, avoids concentrating toxins that accumulate at higher levels of the food chain, and makes tilapia the preferred "aquatic chickens" of the trade.[98]
Game fish
Many large cichlids are popular game fish. The
Aquarium fish
Since 1945, cichlids have become increasingly popular as aquarium fish.[9][86][88][109][110][111][112]
The most common species in hobbyist aquaria is
Hybrids and selective breeding
Some cichlids readily hybridize with related species, both in the wild and under artificial conditions.[113] Other groups of fishes, such as European cyprinids, also hybridize.[114] Unusually, cichlid hybrids have been put to extensive commercial use, in particular for aquaculture and aquaria.[10][115] The hybrid red strain of tilapia, for example, is often preferred in aquaculture for its rapid growth. Tilapia hybridization can produce all-male populations to control stock density or prevent reproduction in ponds.[10]
Aquarium hybrids
The most common aquarium hybrid is perhaps the
Numerous cichlid species have been
This selective breeding may have
Genera
The genus list is as per FishBase. Studies are continuing, however, on the members of this family, particularly the haplochromine cichlids of the African rift lakes.[17]
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Gallery
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The oscar (Astronotus ocellatus) is one of the most popular cichlids in the fishkeeping hobby.
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The butterfly peacock bass (gamefish.
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The Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is farmed extensively as food fish in many parts of the world.
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The angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) has long been commercially bred for the aquarium trade.
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Sexual dimorphism is common in cichlids. Shown here are a male (front, with egg spots) and a female (rear) Maylandia lombardoi.
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A pair of blue rams (Mikrogeophagus ramirezi), male in front, female behind. Many cichlids form strong pair bondswhile breeding.
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A discus (Symphysodon spp.) is guarding its eggs. Advanced broodcare is one of the defining characteristics of cichlids.
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Lake Malawi, Eastern Africa, is home to numerous cichild species including this Livingston's cichlid (Nimbochromis livingstonii).
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Also from Lake Malawi
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Also from Lake Malawi
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A
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The Texas cichlid (Herichthys cyanoguttatus) is the only cichlid native to the United States.
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Pelvicachromis pulcher is a West African riverine cichlid, and part of the aquarists dwarf cichlid group.
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The flowerhorn cichlid is a man-made hybrid that has recently gained popularity among aquarists, particularly in Asia.
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Ivanacara adoketa, a dwarf cichlid from Brazil
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The red terror cichlid is a highly aggressive species from the rivers of Northeast South America.
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A juvenile female Maylandia lombardoi with faint stripes
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A juvenile Aequidens diadema
Footnotes
- ^ Cichlid is frequently mispronounced in the pet trade as if spelled "chicklid" /ˈtʃɪklɪd/, presumably from confusion with names like Chiclets, and with Italian words like cioppino and ciao that start with ci- and the sound /tʃ/.
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- S2CID 40666053.
- ^
Linke H, Staeck L (1994) American cichlids I: Dwarf Cichlids. A handbook for their identification, care and breeding. Tetra Press. Germany. ISBN 1-56465-168-1
- ^ Norton, J (1994). "Notched – An Angelfish Deformity". Freshwater and Marine Aquarium Magazine. 17 (3).
- ^ PMID 23542002.
- S2CID 16769534.
Further reading
- Barlow, G.W. (2000). The Cichlid Fishes. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing.
- "Cichlidae". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.: National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C., 2004-05-11).
- Sany, R.H. (2012). Taxonomy of Cichlids and Angels (web publication).[full citation needed]
External links
- Cichlid at Curlie
- Oliver, Michael, ed. (15 October 2021) [7 May 1997]. "The cichlid fishes of Lake Malawi, Africa". MalawiCichlids.com (main page). Retrieved 1 May 2023.
- van der Meer, H.J. (2008–2013). Vision in cichlids: Ecomorphology of vision in haplochromine cichlids of Lake Victoria (Report).
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 360. .