Hannah Arendt
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Hannah Arendt (
Her works cover a broad range of topics, but she is best known for those dealing with the nature of
Hannah Arendt was born to a Jewish family in
Hannah Arendt married
Early life and education (1906–1929)
Family
Hannah Arendt was born as Johanna Arendt
Hannah was the only child of Paul and Martha Arendt (née Cohn), who were married on 11 April 1902. She was named after her paternal grandmother.[21][22] The Cohns had originally come to Königsberg from nearby Russian territory (now Lithuania) in 1852, as refugees from antisemitism, and made their living as tea importers, J. N. Cohn & Company being the largest business in the city. The Arendts reached Germany from Russia a century earlier.[23][24] Hannah's extended family contained many more women, who shared the loss of husbands and children. Hannah's parents were more educated and politically more to the left than her grandparents. The young couple were Social Democrats,[16] rather than the German Democrats that most of their contemporaries supported. Paul Arendt was educated at the Albertina (University of Königsberg). Though he worked as an engineer, he prided himself on his love of Classics, with a large library that Hannah immersed herself in. Martha Cohn, a musician, had studied for three years in Paris.[20]
In the first four years of their marriage, the Arendts lived in Berlin, and were supporters of the socialist journal
My early intellectual formation occurred in an atmosphere where nobody paid much attention to moral questions; we were brought up under the assumption: Das Moralische versteht sich von selbst, moral conduct is a matter of course.
This time was a particularly favorable period for the Jewish community in Königsberg, an important center of the Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment).[32][33] Arendt's family was thoroughly assimilated ("Germanized")[34] and she later remembered: "With us from Germany, the word 'assimilation' received a 'deep' philosophical meaning. You can hardly realize how serious we were about it."[35] Despite these conditions, the Jewish population lacked full citizenship rights, and although antisemitism was not overt, it was not absent.[36] Arendt came to define her Jewish identity negatively after encountering overt antisemitism as an adult.[35] She came to greatly identify with Rahel Varnhagen, the Prussian socialite[29] who desperately wanted to assimilate into German culture, only to be rejected because she was born Jewish.[35] Arendt later said of Varnhagen that she was "my very closest woman friend, unfortunately dead a hundred years now."[35][d]
In the last two years of the
Education
Early education
Hannah Arendt's mother, who considered herself
Arendt attended kindergarten from 1910 where her precocity impressed her teachers and enrolled in the
Arendt attended the Königin-Luise-Schule for her secondary education, a girls' Gymnasium on Landhofmeisterstraße.[49] Most of her friends, while at school, were gifted children of Jewish professional families, generally older than she and went on to university education. Among them was Ernst Grumach, who introduced her to his girlfriend, Anne Mendelssohn,[g] who would become a lifelong friend. When Anne moved away, Ernst became Arendt's first romantic relationship.[h]
Higher education (1922–1929)
Berlin (1922–1924)
Arendt was expelled from the Luise-Schule in 1922, at the age of 15, for leading a boycott of a teacher who insulted her. Her mother sent her to Berlin to Social Democrat family friends. She lived in a student residence and
Marburg (1924–1926)
In Berlin, Guardini had introduced her to Kierkegaard, and she resolved to make theology her major field.[48] At Marburg (1924–1926) she studied classical languages, German literature, Protestant theology with Rudolf Bultmann and philosophy with Nicolai Hartmann and Heidegger.[53] She arrived in the fall in the middle of an intellectual revolution led by the young Heidegger, of whom she was in awe, describing him as "the hidden king [who] reigned in the realm of thinking".[54][55]
Heidegger had broken away from the intellectual movement started by
Arendt was restless, finding her studies neither emotionally or intellectually satisfying. She was ready for passion, finishing her poem Trost (Consolation, 1923) with the lines:[58]
Die Stunden verrinnen,
Die Tage vergehen,
Es bleibt ein Gewinnen
Das bloße Bestehen.
(The hours run down.
The days pass on.
One achievement remains:
merely being alive.)
Her encounter with Heidegger represented a dramatic departure from the past. He was handsome, a genius, romantic, and taught that thinking and "aliveness" were but one.[59] The 18-year-old Arendt then began a long romantic relationship with the 35-year-old Heidegger,[60] who was married with two young sons.[i][56] Arendt later faced criticism for this because of Heidegger's support for the Nazi Party after his election as rector at Freiburg University in 1933. Nevertheless, he remained one of the most profound influences on her thinking,[61] and he would later relate that she had been the inspiration for his work on passionate thinking in those days. They agreed to keep the details of the relationship a secret although preserving their letters.[62] The relationship was unknown until Elisabeth Young-Bruehl's biography of Arendt appeared in 1982. At the time of publishing, Arendt and Heidegger were deceased but Heidegger's wife, Elfride, was still alive. The affair was not well known until 1995, when Elzbieta Ettinger gained access to the sealed correspondence[63] and published a controversial account that was used by Arendt's detractors to cast doubt on her integrity. That account,[j] which caused a scandal, was subsequently refuted.[65][66][64]
At Marburg, Arendt lived at Lutherstraße 4.[67] Among her friends was Hans Jonas, her only Jewish classmate. Another fellow student of Heidegger's was Jonas' friend, the Jewish philosopher Günther Siegmund Stern, who would later become her first husband.[68] Stern had completed his doctoral dissertation with Edmund Husserl at Freiburg, and was now working on his Habilitation thesis with Heidegger, but Arendt, involved with Heidegger, took little notice of him at the time.[69]
Die Schatten (1925)
In the summer of 1925, while home at Königsberg, Arendt composed her sole autobiographical piece, Die Schatten (The Shadows), a "description of herself"[70][71] addressed to Heidegger.[k][73] In this essay, full of anguish and Heideggerian language, she reveals her insecurities relating to her femininity and Jewishness, writing abstractly in the third person.[l] She describes a state of "Fremdheit" (alienation), on the one hand an abrupt loss of youth and innocence, on the other an "Absonderlichkeit" (strangeness), the finding of the remarkable in the banal.[74] In her detailing of the pain of her childhood and longing for protection she shows her vulnerabilities and how her love for Heidegger had released her and once again filled her world with color and mystery. She refers to her relationship with Heidegger as "Eine starre Hingegebenheit an ein Einziges" ("an unbending devotion to a unique man").[35][75][76] This period of intense introspection was also one of the most productive of her poetic output,[77] such as In sich versunken (Lost in Self-Contemplation).[78]
Freiburg and Heidelberg (1926–1929)
After a year at Marburg, Arendt spent a semester at Freiburg, attending the lectures of Husserl.
On completing her dissertation, Arendt turned to her
Career
Germany (1929–1933)
Berlin-Potsdam (1929)
In 1929, Arendt met Günther Stern again, this time in Berlin at a New Year's masked ball,
Wanderjahre (1929–1931)
After Arendt and Stern were married, they began two years of what Christian Dries refers to as the Wanderjahre (years of wandering) with the ultimately fruitless aim of having Stern accepted for an academic appointment.
Wer, wenn ich schriee, hörte mich denn aus der Engel Ordnungen?
(Who, if I cried out, would hear me among the angelic orders?)
Arendt and Stern begin by stating:[100]
The paradoxical, ambiguous, and desperate situation from which standpoint the Duino Elegies may alone be understood has two characteristics: the absence of an echo and the knowledge of futility. The conscious renunciation of the demand to be heard, the despair at not being able to be heard, and finally the need to speak even without an answer–these are the real reasons for the darkness, asperity, and tension of the style in which poetry indicates its own possibilities and its will to form[q]
Arendt also published an article on Augustine (354–430) in the Frankfurter Zeitung[101] to mark the 1500th anniversary of his death. She saw this article as forming a bridge between her treatment of Augustine in her dissertation and her subsequent work on Romanticism.[102][103] When it became evident Stern would not succeed in obtaining an appointment,[r] the Sterns returned to Berlin in 1931.[29]
Return to Berlin (1931–1933)
In Berlin, where the couple initially lived in the predominantly Jewish area of
Back in Berlin, Arendt found herself becoming more involved in politics and started studying political theory, and reading
By 1932, faced with a deteriorating political situation, Arendt was deeply troubled by reports that Heidegger was speaking at
By 1933, life for the Jewish population in Germany was becoming precarious.
Arendt had already positioned herself as a critic of the rising Nazi Party in 1932 by publishing "Adam-Müller-Renaissance?"[132] a critique of the appropriation of the life of Adam Müller to support right wing ideology. The beginnings of anti-Jewish laws and boycott came in the spring of 1933. Confronted with systemic antisemitism, Arendt adopted the motiv "If one is attacked as a Jew one must defend oneself as a Jew. Not as a German, not as a world citizen, not as an upholder of the Rights of Man."[44][133] This was Arendt's introduction of the concept of Jew as Pariah that would occupy her for the rest of her life in her Jewish writings.[134] She took a public position by publishing part of her largely completed biography of Rahel Varnhagen as "Originale Assimilation: Ein Nachwort zu Rahel Varnhagen 100 Todestag" ("Original Assimilation: An Epilogue to the One Hundredth Anniversary of Rahel Varnhagen's Death") in the Kölnische Zeitung on 7 March 1933 and a little later also in Jüdische Rundschau.[u][84] In the article she argues that the age of assimilation that began with Varnhagen's generation had come to an end with an official state policy of antisemitism. She opened with the declaration:[136]
Today in Germany it seems Jewish assimilation must declare its bankruptcy. The general social antisemitism and its official legitimation affects in the first instance assimilated Jews, who can no longer protect themselves through baptism or by emphasizing their differences from Eastern Judaism.[v]
As a Jew, Arendt was anxious to inform the world of what was happening to her people in 1930–1933.
Exile: France (1933–1941)
Paris (1933–1940)
On release, realizing the danger she was now in, Arendt and her mother fled Germany
From Geneva the Arendts traveled to Paris in the autumn, where she was reunited with Stern, joining a stream of refugees.[141] While Arendt had left Germany without papers, her mother had travel documents and returned to Königsberg and her husband.[140] In Paris, she befriended Stern's cousin, the Marxist literary critic and philosopher Walter Benjamin and also the Jewish French philosopher Raymond Aron.[141]
Arendt was now an
Later in 1935, Arendt joined
Heinrich Blücher
In 1936, Arendt met the self-educated Berlin poet and
Internment and escape (1940–1941)
On 5 May 1940, in anticipation of the
Montauban had become an unofficial capital for former detainees,
Fry and Bingham secured exit papers and American visas for thousands, and with help from Günther Stern, Arendt, her husband, and her mother managed to secure the requisite permits to travel by train in January 1941 through Spain to Lisbon, Portugal, where they rented a flat at Rua da Sociedade Farmacêutica, 6b.[ac][167] They eventually secured passage to New York in May on the Companhia Colonial de Navegação's S/S Guiné II.[168] A few months later, Fry's operations were shut down and the borders sealed.[169][170]
New York (1941–1975)
World War II (1941–1945)
Upon arriving in New York City on 22 May 1941 with very little, Hannah's family received assistance from the Zionist Organization of America and the local German immigrant population, including Paul Tillich and neighbors from Königsberg. They rented rooms at 317 West 95th Street and Martha Arendt joined them there in June. There was an urgent need to acquire English, and it was decided that Hannah Arendt should spend two months with an American family in Winchester, Massachusetts, through Self-Help for Refugees, in July.[171] She found the experience difficult but formulated her early appraisal of American life, Der Grundwiderspruch des Landes ist politische Freiheit bei gesellschaftlicher Knechtschaft (The fundamental contradiction of the country is political freedom coupled with social slavery).[ad][172]
On returning to New York, Arendt was anxious to resume writing and became active in the German-Jewish community, publishing her first article, "From the
Arendt's first full-time salaried job came in 1944, when she became the director of research and executive director for the newly emerging
Post-war (1945–1975)
In July 1946, Arendt left her position at the Commission on European Jewish Cultural Reconstruction to become an editor at
In the 1950s Arendt wrote
In 1961 she traveled to
A few years later she spoke in New York City on the legitimacy of violence as a political act: "Generally speaking, violence always rises out of impotence. It is the hope of those who have no power to find a substitute for it and this hope, I think, is in vain. Violence can destroy power, but it can never replace it."[194]
Teaching
Arendt taught at many institutions of higher learning from 1951 onwards, but, preserving her independence, consistently refused
She was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1962[197] and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1964.[198] In 1974, Arendt was instrumental in the creation of Structured Liberal Education (SLE) at Stanford University. She wrote a letter to the president of Stanford to persuade the university to enact Stanford history professor Mark Mancall's vision of a residentially-based humanities program.[179] At the time of her death, she was University Professor of Political Philosophy at The New School.[179]
Relationships
In addition to her affair with Heidegger, and her two marriages, Arendt had close friendships. Since her death, her correspondence with many of them has been published, revealing much information about her thinking. To her friends she was both loyal and generous, dedicating several of her works to them.[199] Freundschaft (friendship) she described as being one of "tätigen Modi des Lebendigseins" (the active modes of being alive),[200] and, to her, friendship was central both to her life and to the concept of politics.[199][201] Hans Jonas described her as having a "genius for friendship", and, in her own words, "der Eros der Freundschaft" (love of friendship).[199][202]
Her philosophy-based friendships were male and European, while her later American friendships were more diverse, literary, and political. Although she became an American citizen in 1950, her cultural roots remained European, and her language remained her German "Muttersprache" (mother tongue).[203] She surrounded herself with German-speaking émigrés, sometimes referred to as "The Tribe". To her, wirkliche Menschen (real people) were "pariahs", not in the sense of outcasts, but in the sense of outsiders, unassimilated, with the virtue of "social nonconformism ... the sine qua non of intellectual achievement", a sentiment she shared with Jaspers.[204]
Arendt always had a beste Freundin (best friend [female]). In her teens she had formed a lifelong relationship with her Jugendfreundin, Anne Mendelssohn Weil ("Ännchen"). After her emigration to America, Hilde Fränkel, Paul Tillich's secretary and mistress, filled that role until the latter's death in 1950. After the war, Arendt was able to return to Germany and renew her relationship with Weil, who made several visits to New York, especially after Blücher's death in 1970. Their last meeting was in Tegna, Switzerland in 1975, shortly before Arendt's death.[205] With Fränkel's death, Mary McCarthy became Arendt's closest friend and confidante.[51][206][207]
Final illness and death
Heinrich Blücher had survived a
After Arendt's death the title page of the final part of The Life of the Mind ("Judging") was found in her typewriter, which she had just started, consisting of the title and two epigraphs. This has subsequently been reproduced in the edited version of her Lectures on Kant's Political Philosophy.(see image).[213]
Work
Arendt wrote works on
Political theory and philosophical system
While Arendt never developed a systematic political theory and her writing does not easily lend itself to categorization, the tradition of thought most closely identified with Arendt is that of
While she is best known for her work on "dark times",[ai] the nature of totalitarianism and evil, she imbued this with a spark of hope and confidence in the nature of mankind:[214]
That even in the darkest of times we have the right to expect some illumination, and that such illumination might well come less from theories and concepts than from the uncertain, flickering, and often weak light that some men and women, in their lives and their works, will kindle under almost all circumstances and shed over the time span that was given to them. Men in Dark Times (1968)[222]
Love and Saint Augustine (1929)
Arendt's doctoral thesis, Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin. Versuch einer philosophischen Interpretation
Amor mundi – warum ist es so schwer, die Welt zu lieben?
Love of the world – why is it so difficult to love the world?
—Denktagebuch I: 522[226]
Some of the
Love is another connecting theme. In addition to the Augustinian loves expostulated in her dissertation, the phrase amor mundi (love of the world) is one often associated with Arendt and both permeates her work and was an absorbing passion throughout her work.[233][234] She took the phrase from Augustine's homily on the first epistle of St John, "If love of the world dwell in us".[235] Amor mundi was her original title for The Human Condition (1958),[al][237] the subtitle of Elisabeth Young-Bruehl's biography (1982),[67] the title of a collection of writing on faith in her work[238] and is the newsletter of the Hannah Arendt Center at Bard College.[239]
The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
Arendt's first major book, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951),[186] examined the roots of Stalinism and Nazism, structured as three essays, "Antisemitism", "Imperialism" and "Totalitarianism". Arendt argues that totalitarianism was a "novel form of government," that "differs essentially from other forms of political oppression known to us such as despotism, tyranny and dictatorship"[240] in that it applied terror to subjugate mass populations rather than just political adversaries.[241][242] Arendt also maintained that Jewry was not the operative factor in the Holocaust, but merely a convenient proxy because Nazism was about terror and consistency, not merely eradicating Jews.[242][243] Arendt explained the tyranny using Kant's phrase "radical evil",[244] by which their victims became "superfluous people".[245][246] In later editions she enlarged the text[247] to include her work on "Ideology and Terror: A novel form of government"[241] and the Hungarian Revolution, but then published the latter separately.[248][249][250]
Criticism of Origins has often focused on its portrayal of the two movements, Hitlerism and Stalinism, as equally tyrannical.[251]
Rahel Varnhagen: The Life of a Jewess (1957)
Arendt's Habilitationsschrift on Rahel Varnhagen was completed while she was living in exile in Paris in 1938, but not published till 1957, in the United Kingdom by East and West Library, part of the Leo Baeck Institute.[252] This biography of a 19th-century Jewish socialite, formed an important step in her analysis of Jewish history and the subjects of assimilation and emancipation, and introduced her treatment of the Jewish diaspora as either pariah or parvenu. In addition it represents an early version of her concept of history.[253][254] The book is dedicated to Anne Mendelssohn, who first drew her attention to Varnhagen.[83][255][256] Arendt's relation to Varnhagen permeates her subsequent work. Her account of Varnhagen's life was perceived during a time of the destruction of German-Jewish culture. It partially reflects Arendt's own view of herself as a German-Jewish woman driven out of her own culture into a stateless existence,[253] leading to the description "biography as autobiography".[254][257][258]
The Human Condition (1958)
In what is arguably her most influential work,
Arendt had first introduced the concept of "natality" in her Love and Saint Augustine (1929)[79] and in The Human Condition starts to develop this further. In this, she departs from Heidegger's emphasis on mortality. Arendt's positive message is one of the "miracle of beginning", the continual arrival of the new to create action, that is to alter the state of affairs brought about by previous actions.[260] "Men", she wrote "though they must die, are not born in order to die but in order to begin". She defined her use of "natality" as:[261]
The miracle that saves the world, the realm of human affairs, from its normal, "natural" ruin is ultimately the fact of natality, in which the faculty of action is ontologically rooted. It is, in other words, the birth of new men and the new beginning, the action they are capable of by virtue of being born.
Natality would go on to become a central concept of her political theory, and also what Karin Fry considers its most optimistic one.[229]
Between Past and Future (1954...1968)
Between Past and Future is an anthology of eight essays written between 1954 and 1968, dealing with a variety of different but connected philosophical subjects. These essays share the central idea that humans live between the past and the uncertain future. Man must permanently think to exist, but must learn thinking. Humans have resorted to tradition, but are abandoning respect for this tradition and culture. Arendt tries to find solutions to help humans think again, since modern philosophy has not succeeded in helping humans to live correctly.[215]
On Revolution (1963)
Arendt's book On Revolution
Men in Dark Times (1968)
The anthology of essays Men in Dark Times presents intellectual biographies of some creative and moral figures of the 20th century, such as
Crises of the Republic (1972)
Crises of the Republic[217] was the third of Arendt's anthologies, consisting of four essays. These related essays deal with contemporary American politics and the crises it faced in the 1960s and 1970s. "Lying in Politics" looks for an explanation behind the administration's deception regarding the Vietnam War, as revealed in the Pentagon Papers. "Civil Disobedience" examines the opposition movements, while the final "Thoughts on Politics and Revolution" is a commentary, in the form of an interview on the third essay, "On Violence".[217][264] In "On Violence" Arendt substantiates that violence presupposes power which she understands as a property of groups. Thus, she breaks with the predominant conception of power as derived from violence.
The Life of the Mind (1978)
Arendt's last major work, The Life of the Mind[265] remained incomplete at the time of her death in 1975, but marked a return to moral philosophy. The outline of the book was based on her graduate level political philosophy class, Philosophy of the Mind, and her Gifford Lectures in Scotland.[266] She conceived of the work as a trilogy based on the mental activities of thinking, willing, and judging. Her most recent work had focused on the first two, but went beyond this in terms of vita activa. Her discussion of thinking was based on Socrates and his notion of thinking as a solitary dialogue between oneself, leading her to novel concepts of conscience.[267]
Arendt died suddenly five days after completing the second part, with the first page of Judging still in her typewriter, and McCarthy then edited the first two parts and provided some indication of the direction of the third.
Collected works
After Arendt's death in 1975, her essays and notes have continued to be collected, edited and published posthumously by friends and colleagues, mainly under the editorship of Jerome Kohn, including those that give some insight into the unfinished third part of The Life of the Mind.[180] Some dealt with her Jewish identity. The Jew as Pariah: Jewish Identity and Politics in the Modern Age (1978),[272] is a collection of 15 essays and letters from the period 1943–1966 on the situation of Jews in modern times, to try and throw some light on her views on the Jewish world, following the backlash to Eichmann, but proved to be equally polarizing.[273][274] A further collection of her writings on being Jewish was published as The Jewish Writings (2007).[275][276] Her work on moral philosophy appeared as Lectures on Kant's Political Philosophy (1982) and Responsibility and Judgment (2003), and her literary works as Reflections on Literature and Culture (2007).[180]
Other work includes the collection of forty, largely fugitive,[am] essays, addresses, and reviews covering the period 1930–1954, entitled Essays in Understanding 1930–1954: Formation, Exile, and Totalitarianism (1994).[277] These presaged her monumental The Origins of Totalitarianism,[186] in particular On the Nature of Totalitarianism (1953) and The Concern with Politics in Contemporary European Philosophical Thought (1954).[278] However these attracted little attention. However after a new version of Origins of Totalitarianism appeared in 2004 followed by The Promise of Politics in 2005 there appeared a new interest in Arendtiana. This led to a second series of her remaining essays, Thinking Without a Banister: Essays in Understanding, 1953–1975, published in 2018.[279] Her notebooks which form a series of memoirs, were published as Denktagebuch in 2002.[280][281][282]
Correspondence
Some further insight into her thinking is provided in the continuing posthumous publication of her correspondence with many of the important figures in her life, including Karl Jaspers (1992),[80] Mary McCarthy (1995),[190] Heinrich Blücher (1996),[283] Martin Heidegger (2004),[an][72] Alfred Kazin (2005),[284] Walter Benjamin (2006),[285] Gershom Scholem (2011)[286] and Günther Stern (2016).[287] Other correspondences that have been published include those with women friends such as Hilde Fränkel and Anne Mendelsohn Weil (see Relationships).[288][285]
Arendt and the Eichmann trial (1961–1963)
In 1960, on hearing of
On this, Arendt would later state "Going along with the rest and wanting to say 'we' were quite enough to make the greatest of all crimes possible".[ap][296] What Arendt observed during the trial was a bourgeois sales clerk who found a meaningful role for himself and a sense of importance in the Nazi movement. She noted that his addiction to clichés and use of bureaucratic morality clouded his ability to question his actions, "to think". This led her to set out her most debated dictum: "the lesson that this long course in human wickedness had taught us – the lesson of the fearsome, word-and-thought-defying banality of evil."[29][292] By stating that Eichmann did not think, she did not imply lack of conscious awareness of his actions, but by "thinking" she implied reflective rationality, that was lacking.
Arendt was critical of the way the trial was conducted by the Israelis as a "show trial" with ulterior motives other than simply trying evidence and administering justice.
Reception
Arendt's five-part series "Eichmann in Jerusalem" appeared in The New Yorker in February 1963[292] some nine months after Eichmann was hanged on 31 May 1962. By this time his trial was largely forgotten in the popular mind, superseded by intervening world events.[307] However, no other account of either Eichmann or National Socialism has aroused so much controversy.[308] Prior to its publication, Arendt was considered a brilliant humanistic original political thinker.[309] Her mentor, Karl Jaspers, however, had warned her about a possible adverse outcome, "The Eichmann trial will be no pleasure for you. I'm afraid it cannot go well".[at][246] On publication, three controversies immediately occupied public attention: the concept of Eichmann as banal, her criticism of the role of Israel and her description of the role played by the Jewish people themselves.[311]
Arendt was profoundly shocked by the response, writing to Karl Jaspers "People are resorting to any means to destroy my reputation ... They have spent weeks trying to find something in my past that they can hang on me". Now she was being called arrogant, heartless and ill-informed. She was accused of being duped by Eichmann, of being a "self-hating Jewess", and even an enemy of Israel.
Although Arendt complained that she was being criticized for telling the truth – "what a risky business to tell the truth on a factual level without theoretical and scholarly embroidery"[au][315] – the criticism was largely directed to her theorizing on the nature of mankind and evil and that ordinary people were driven to commit the inexplicable not so much by hatred and ideology as ambition, and inability to empathize. Equally problematic was the suggestion that the victims deceived themselves and complied in their own destruction.[316] Prior to Arendt's depiction of Eichmann, his popular image had been, as The New York Times put it "the most evil monster of humanity"[317] and as a representative of "an atrocious crime, unparalleled in history", "the extermination of European Jews".[297] As it turned out Arendt and others were correct in pointing out that Eichmann's characterization by the prosecution as the architect and chief technician of the Holocaust was not entirely credible.[318]
While much has been made of Arendt's treatment of Eichmann, Ada Ushpiz, in her 2015 documentary Vita Activa: The Spirit of Hannah Arendt,[319] placed it in a much broader context of the use of rationality to explain seemingly irrational historical events.[av][294]
Kein Mensch hat das Recht zu gehorchen
In an interview with
Der Satz 'man muß Gott mehr gehorchen, als den Menschen' bedeutet nur, daß, wenn die letzten etwas gebieten, was an sich böse (dem Sittengesetz unmittelbar zuwider) ist, ihnen nicht gehorcht werden darf und soll[321] (The saying, "We must hearken to God, rather than to man," signifies no more than this, viz. that should any earthly legislation enjoin something immediately contradictory of the moral law, obedience is not to be rendered)
Kant clearly defines a higher moral duty than rendering merely unto Caesar. Arendt herself had written in her book "This was outrageous, on the face of it, and also incomprehensible, since Kant's moral philosophy is so closely bound up with man's faculty of judgment, which rules out blind obedience."[322] Arendt's reply to Fest was subsequently corrupted to read Niemand hat das Recht zu gehorchen (No one has the right to obey), which has been widely reproduced, although it does encapsulate an aspect of her moral philosophy.[180][323]
The phrase Niemand hat das Recht zu gehorchen has become one of her iconic images, appearing on the wall of the house in which she was born (see
The phrase has been appearing in other artistic work featuring political messages, such as the 2015 installation by Wilfried Gerstel, which has evoked the concept of resistance to dictatorship, as expressed in her essay "Personal Responsibility under Dictatorship" (1964).[133][327]
List of selected publications
Bibliographies
- Heller, Anne C (23 July 2005). "Selected Bibliography: A Life in Dark Times". Archived from the original on 18 August 2018. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
- Kohn, Jerome (2018). "Bibliographical Works". The Hannah Arendt Center for Politics and Humanities at Bard College. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018., in HAC Bard (2018)
- Yanase, Yosuke (3 May 2008). "Hannah Arendt's major works". Philosophical Investigations for Applied Linguistics. Archived from the original on 26 July 2018. Retrieved 26 July 2018.
- "Arendt works". Thinking and Judging with Hannah Arendt: Political theory class. University of Helsinki. 2010–2012. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 17 November 2018.
Books
- Arendt, Hannah (1929). Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin: Versuch einer philosophischen Interpretation [On the concept of love in the thought of Saint Augustine: Attempt at a philosophical interpretation] (PDF) (Doctoral thesis, Department of Philosophy, (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2015., reprinted as
- — (2006). Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin: Versuch einer philosophischen Interpretation (in German). Georg Olms Verlag.
- Also available in English as:
— (1996). Scott, Joanna Vecchiarelli; Stark, Judith Chelius (eds.). Love and Saint Augustine.
- — (1997) [1938, published 1957]. Rahel Varnhagen)
- Azria, Régine (1987). "Review of Rahel Varnhagen. La vie d'une juive allemande à l'époque du romantisme". Archives de sciences sociales des religions (Review). 32 (64.2): 233. JSTOR 30129073.
- Weissberg, Liliane; Elon, Amos (10 June 1999). "Hannah Arendt's Integrity". The New York Review of Books (Editorial letters). Archived from the original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
- Zohn, Harry (1960). "Review of Rahel Varnhagen. The Life of a Jewess". Jewish Social Studies (Review). 22 (3): 180–81. JSTOR 4465809.
- Azria, Régine (1987). "Review of Rahel Varnhagen. La vie d'une juive allemande à l'époque du romantisme". Archives de sciences sociales des religions (Review). 32 (64.2): 233.
- — (1976) [1951, New York: ISBN 978-0-547-54315-4., (see also The Origins of Totalitarianism and Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism) Full text (1979 edition) on Internet Archive
- Riesman, David (1 April 1951). "The Origins of Totalitarianism, by Hannah Arendt". Commentary (Review). Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
- JSTOR 42896812.
- — (2013) [1958]. The Human Condition (Second ed.). The Human Condition)
- — (1958). Die ungarische Revolution und der totalitäre Imperialismus (in German). München: R. Piper & Co Verlag. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
- — (2006) [1961, New York: Viking]. Between Past and Future. ISBN 978-1-101-66265-6. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 22 July 2018. (see also Between Past and Future)
- — (2006b) [1963, New York: Viking]. On Revolution.
- — (2006a) [1963, ISBN 978-1-101-00716-7. Full text: 1964 edition Archived 23 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine (see also Eichmann in Jerusalem)
- — (1968). Men in Dark Times. New York: ISBN 978-0-15-658890-4.
- — (1972). Crises of the Republic: Lying in Politics; Civil Disobedience; On Violence; Thoughts on Politics and Revolution. New York: (PDF) from the original on 4 April 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
- Nott, Kathleen (1 August 1972). "Crises of the Republic, by Hannah Arendt". Commentary (Review). Archived from the original on 24 July 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
Articles and essays
- —; doi:10.5169/seals-760191. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2018. (English translation in Arendt & Stern (2007m, pp. 1–23))
- — (12 April 1930a). "Augustin und Protestantismus" [Augustine and Protestanism]. Frankfurter Zeitung. No. 902. Translated by Robert and Rita Kimber. p. 1. (reprinted in Arendt (2011, pp. 24–27))
- — (1930b). "Philosophie und Soziologie. Anläßlich Karl Mannheims Ideologie und Utopie" [Philosophy and Sociology]. Die Gesellschaft. 7 (1). Translated by Robert and Rita Kimber: 163–176. (reprinted in Arendt (2011, pp. 28–43))
- — (1931). "Rezension von: Hans Weil: Die Entstehung des Deutschen Bildungsprinzips" [On the emancipation of women]. Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik (Review). 66. Translated by Elisabeh Young-Bruehl: 200–05.
- — (1932). "Aufklärung und Judenfrage" [The Enlightenment and the Jewish Question]. Zeitschrift für die Geschichte der Juden in Deutschland (in German). 4 (2/3): 65–77. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 22 September 2018. (reprinted in Arendt-Stern (2009m, pp. 3–18))
- — (1932a). "Rezension über Alice Rühle-Gerstel: Das Frauenproblem in der Gegenwart. Eine psychologische Bilanz". Die Gesellschaft (in German). 10 (2): 177–179. (reprinted in Arendt (2011, pp. 66–68))
- — (13–17 September 1932b). "Adam-Müller-Renaissance?". Kölnische Zeitung (in German). No. 501, 510. (English translation in Arendt (2007n, pp. 38–45))
- — (July 1942). "From the Dreyfus Affair to France Today". Jewish Social Studies. 4 (3): 195–240. JSTOR 4615201.
- — (31 January 1943). "We refugees" (PDF). Menorah Journal. 31 (1): 69–77. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2018., reprinted in Arendt (1978a, pp. 55–67) and Robinson (1996, pp. 110–19)
- — (1944). "The Jew as Pariah: A Hidden Tradition". Jewish Social Studies. 6 (2): 99–122. JSTOR 4464588. (reprinted in Arendt (2009n, pp. 275–297))
- — (1958). "Totalitarian Imperialism: Reflections on the Hungarian Revolution". S2CID 154428972.
- — (Winter 1959). "Reflections on Little Rock" (PDF). Dissent. Vol. 6, no. 6. pp. 45–56. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 September 2017. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
- — (Spring 1959). "A reply to critics". Dissent. Vol. 6, no. 7. pp. 179–81. Archived from the original on 4 August 2018. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
- — (February–March 1963). "Eichmann in Jerusalem. 5 parts". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 11 August 2018. Retrieved 11 August 2018.
- — (21 October 1971). "Martin Heidegger at Eighty". New York Review of Books. Translated by Albert Hofstadter. p. 51. Archivedfrom the original on 11 May 2020. Retrieved 15 December 2018.
Correspondence
- Arendt, Hannah; ISBN 978-0-15-107887-5.
- Arendt, Hannah; Kazin, Alfred (February 2005). Mahrdt, Helgard (ed.). "The correspondence between Hannah Arendt and Alfred Kazin". Samtiden. No. 1. pp. 107–54. Archived from the original on 15 November 2021. Retrieved 27 January 2019.
- Arendt, Hannah; ISBN 978-0-15-100112-5.
- Arendt, Hannah; ISBN 978-0-15-100303-7.
- Arendt, Hannah; ISBN 978-0-15-100525-3. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 10 August 2018.
- Heidegger, Martin (24 April 1925). "This Day in Letters: Letter to Hannah Arendt". The American Reader. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
- Lilla, Mark (18 November 1999). "Ménage à Trois". The New York Review of Books (review). Archived from the original on 3 March 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
- Brightman, Carol (20 May 2004). "The Metaphysical Couple". The Nation (Review). Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
- Arendt, Hannah; ISBN 978-3-518-29395-9. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 10 August 2018.
- Arendt, Hannah; ISBN 978-3-406-69911-5. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 12 September 2018. (excerpts Archived 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine)
- Magenau, Jörg (9 October 2016). "Die Geschiedenen: Die Frage ist, wie man überlebt: Der Briefwechsel zwischen Hannah Arendt und Günther Anders". Süddeutsche Zeitung (Review) (in German). Archived from the original on 12 September 2018. Retrieved 12 September 2018.
- Arendt, Hannah (2017). Ludz, Ursula; Nordmann, Ingeborg (eds.). Wie ich einmal ohne Dich leben soll, mag ich mir nicht vorstellen: Briefwechsel mit den Freundinnen Charlotte Beradt, Rose Feitelson, Hilde Fränkel, Anne Weil-Mendelsohn und Helen Wolff (I do not like to imagine how I should live without you: correspondence with my friends) (in German). Piper ebooks. ISBN 978-3-492-97837-8. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
- Arendt, Hannah; ISBN 978-0-226-92451-9. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
- Aschheim, Steven E. (Winter 2011). "Between New York and Jerusalem". Jewish Review of Books (Review). Archived from the original on 13 August 2020. Retrieved 4 November 2018.
Posthumous
- Arendt, Hannah (1981) [1978]. ISBN 978-0-15-651992-2. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2018. Online text at Pensar el Espacio Público Archived 13 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- Mckenna, George (November 1978). "The Life of the Mind". JSTOR 2129914.
- Mckenna, George (November 1978). "The Life of the Mind".
- — (1978). Feldman, Ron H (ed.). The Jew as Pariah: Jewish Identity and Politics in the Modern Age. ISBN 978-0-394-17042-8. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
- — (1978a) [1943]. We refugees (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
- S2CID 169475999.
- Dannhauser, Werner J. (1 January 1979). "The Jew as Pariah, by Hannah Arendt, edited by Ron H. Feldman". Commentary (Review). Archived from the original on 25 February 2020. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
- — (1992) [1982]. Beiner, Ronald (ed.). Lectures on Kant's Political Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-226-23178-5. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 25 July 2018. Online text Archived 14 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine; text at the Internet Archive
- — (2002a). Ludz, Ursula; Nordmann, Ingeborg (eds.). Denktagebuch: 1950 bis 1973 (in German). Vol. 1. Piper. ISBN 978-3-492-04429-5.
- — (2002b). Ludz, Ursula; Nordmann, Ingeborg (eds.). Denktagebuch: 1950 bis 1973 (in German). Vol. 2. Piper. ISBN 978-3-492-04429-5.
- — (January 2000). Baehr, Peter (ed.). The Portable Hannah Arendt.
- — (2011) [1994 Harcourt Brace & Company]. Kohn, Jerome (ed.). Essays in Understanding, 1930–1954: Formation, Exile, and Totalitarianism. ISBN 978-0-307-78703-3.
- —; Gaus, Günter [in German] (2011a) [28 October 1964]. Was bleibt? Es bleibt die Muttersprache. Günter Gaus im Gespräch mit Hannah Arendt ["What remains? The Language remains": An interview with Günter Gaus]. Translated by Joan Stambaugh. pp. 1–23.
- "Was bleibt? Es bleibt die Muttersprache". rbb fernsehen (in German). Rundfunk Berlin-Brandenburg. 28 October 1964. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 1 October 2018. (original German transcription)
- Teichman, Jenny (April 1994). "Understanding Arendt". The New Criterion (Review).
- —; Gaus, Günter [in German] (2011a) [28 October 1964]. Was bleibt? Es bleibt die Muttersprache. Günter Gaus im Gespräch mit Hannah Arendt ["What remains? The Language remains": An interview with Günter Gaus]. Translated by Joan Stambaugh. pp. 1–23.
- — (2005). Ludz, Ursula (ed.). Ich will verstehen: Selbstauskünfte zu Leben und Werk; mit einer vollständigen Bibliographie (in German). Piper. ISBN 978-3-492-24591-3.
- —; Stern, Günther (2007m) [1930]. "Rilkes Duineser Elegien". Translated by Susannah Young-ah Gottlieb. pp. 1–23.
- — (2007n) [1932]. "Adam-Müller-Renaissance?". pp. 38–45.
- — (2009b) [2003, ISBN 978-0-307-54405-6.
- — (1964), Personal responsibility under dictatorship (PDF), pp. 17–48, archived (PDF) from the original on 23 August 2018
- — (2009a) [2007 ISBN 978-0-307-49628-7. at Pensar el Espacio Público Archived 13 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- — (2009m) [1932]. The Enlightenment and the Jewish Question. Translated by John E. Woods. pp. 3–18.
- — (2009n) [1944]. The Jew as Pariah: A Hidden Tradition. pp. 275–297.
- from the original on 22 July 2018. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
- — (2018). Kohn, Jerome (ed.). Thinking Without a Banister: Essays in Understanding, 1953–1975. ISBN 978-1-101-87030-3.
Collections
- "The Hannah Arendt Papers". Library of Congress. 2001. Archived from the original on 15 August 2018. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
- "Hannah Arendt-Archiv" (in German). Institut für Philosophie: Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg. 2018. Retrieved 27 August 2018.
- "Hannah Arendt (publications)". Internet Archive. Retrieved 13 October 2018.
Miscellaneous
- Arendt, Hannah (2007b). Fischer-Defoy, Christine (ed.). Hannah Arendt: das private Adressbuch 1951–1975 (in German). Koehler & Amelang. ISBN 978-3-7338-0357-5.
- Ludz, Ursula (May 2008b). "Gut gestaltet, unterhaltsam, aber nicht zuverlässig – das kürzlich erschienene Arendt-Adressbuch". HannahArendt.net (Review) (in German). 4 (1). from the original on 26 August 2018. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
- —; doi:10.57773/hanet.v3i1.114. Archived from the original on 18 February 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2018. (Original video) Archived 15 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- — (18 April 1975a). "Sonning Prize acceptance speech". Miscellaneous Material. Copenhagen. Archived from the original on 18 April 2020. Retrieved 25 October 2018., reprinted as the Prologue in Arendt (2009b, pp. 3–16)
- — (15 February – 10 March 1950). "Jewish Cultural Reconstruction Field Reports, 1948–1951, No. 18". Key Documents of German-Jewish History. Hamburg: Institut für die Geschichte der deutschen Juden (IGdJ), from the original on 15 April 2019. Retrieved 7 March 2019.
Views
In 1961, while covering the trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem, Arendt wrote a letter to Karl Jaspers that Adam Kirsch described as reflecting "pure racism" toward Sephardic Jews from the Middle East and Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe. She wrote:[80]
Fortunately, Eichmann's three judges were of German origin, indeed the best of German Jewry. [Attorney General Gideon] Hausner is a typical Galician Jew, still European, very unsympathetic... boring... constantly making mistakes. Probably one of those people who don't know any language. Everything is organized by
a police force which gives me the creeps, speaks only Hebrew, and looks Arabic. Some downright brutal types among them. They would obey any order. And outside the doors, the oriental mob, as if one were in Istanbul or some other half-Asiatic country.
Although Arendt remained a
Accusations of racism
It was not just Arendt's analysis of the Eichmann trial that drew accusations of racism. In her 1958 essay in Dissent entitled Reflections on Little Rock
While over time Arendt conceded some ground to her critics, namely that she argued as an outsider, she remained committed to her central critique that children should not be thrust into the front-lines of geopolitical conflict. [336]
Feminism
Embraced by
Critique of human rights
In The Origins of Totalitarianism, Hannah Arendt devotes a lengthy chapter (The Decline of the Nation-State and the End of the Rights of Man)[346][347] to a critical analysis of human rights, in what has been described as "the most widely read essay on refugees ever published".[348] Arendt is not skeptical of the notion of political rights in general, but instead defends a national or civil conception of rights.[349][347] Human rights, or the Rights of Man as they were commonly called, are universal, inalienable, and possessed simply by virtue of being human. In contrast, civil rights are possessed by virtue of belonging to a political community, most commonly by being a citizen. Arendt's primary criticism of human rights is that they are ineffectual and illusory because their enforcement is in tension with national sovereignty.[350] She argued that since there is no political authority above that of sovereign nations, state governments have little incentive to respect human rights when such policies conflict with national interests. This can be seen most clearly by examining the treatment of refugees and other stateless people. Since the refugee has no state to secure their civil rights, the only rights they have to fall back on are human rights. In this way Arendt uses the refugee as a test case for examining human rights in isolation from civil rights.[351]
Arendt's analysis draws on the refugee upheavals in the first half of the 20th century along with her own experience as a refugee fleeing Nazi Germany. She argued that as state governments began to emphasize national identity as a prerequisite for full legal status, the number of minority resident aliens increased along with the number of stateless persons whom no state was willing to recognize legally.[352] The two potential solutions to the refugee problem, repatriation and naturalization, both proved incapable of solving the crisis. Arendt argued that repatriation failed to solve the refugee crisis because no government was willing to take them in and claim them as their own. When refugees were forcibly deported to neighboring countries, such immigration was deemed illegal by the receiving country, and so failed to change the fundamental status of the migrants as stateless. Attempts at naturalizing and assimilating refugees also had little success. This failure was primarily the result of resistance from both state governments and the majority of citizens, since both tended to see the refugees as undesirables who threatened their national identity. Resistance to naturalization also came from the refugees themselves who resisted assimilation and attempted to maintain their own ethnic and national identities.[353] Arendt contends that neither naturalization nor the tradition of asylum was capable of handling the sheer number of refugees. Instead of accepting some refugees with legal status, the state often responded by denaturalizing minorities who shared national or ethnic ties with stateless refugees.[351]
Arendt argues that the consistent mistreatment of refugees, most of whom were placed in internment camps, is evidence against the existence of human rights. If the notion of human rights as universal and inalienable is to be taken seriously, the rights must be realizable given the features of the modern liberal state.[354] She concluded "The Rights of Man, supposedly inalienable, proved to be unenforceable–even in countries whose constitutions were based upon them–whenever people appeared who were no longer citizens of any sovereign state".[355] Arendt contends that they are not realizable because they are in tension with at least one feature of the liberal state—national sovereignty. One of the primary ways in which a nation exercises sovereignty is through control over national borders. State governments consistently grant their citizens free movement to traverse national borders. In contrast, the movement of refugees is often restricted in the name of national interests.[356] This restriction presents a dilemma for liberalism because liberal theorists typically are committed to both human rights and the existence of sovereign nations.[351]
In one of her most quoted passages,[357] she puts forward the concept that human rights are little more than an abstraction:[358]
The conception of human rights based upon the assumed existence of a human being as such broke down at the very moment when those who professed to believe in it were for the first time confronted with people who had indeed lost all other qualities and specific relationships – except that they were still human. The world found nothing sacred in the abstract nakedness of being human.
In popular culture
Several authors have written biographies that focus on the relationship between Hannah Arendt and Martin Heidegger.[60][61][359] In 1999, the French feminist philosopher Catherine Clément wrote a novel, Martin and Hannah,[360] speculating on the triangular relationship between Heidegger and the two women in his life, Arendt and Heidegger's wife Elfriede Petri. In addition to the relationships, the novel is a serious exploration of philosophical ideas, that centers on Arendt's last meeting with Heidegger in Freiburg in 1975. The scene is based on Elisabeth Young-Bruehl's description in Hannah Arendt: For Love of the World (1982),[67] but reaches back to their childhoods, and Heidegger's role in encouraging the relationship between the two women.[361] The novel explores Heidegger's embrace of Nazism as a proxy for that of Germany and, as in Arendt's treatment of Eichmann, the difficult relationship between collective guilt and personal responsibility. Clément also brings Hannah's other mentor and confidante, Karl Jaspers, into the matrix of relationships.[362]
In 2012 the German film, Hannah Arendt, directed by Margarethe von Trotta was released. The film, with Barbara Sukowa in the title role, depicted the controversy over Arendt's coverage of the Eichmann trial and subsequent book,[218] in which she was widely misunderstood as defending Eichmann and blaming Jewish leaders for the Holocaust.[363][364] In 2015, the filmmaker Ada Ushpiz produced a documentary on Hannah Arendt, Vita Activa: The Spirit of Hannah Arendt.[319] In the 2023 TV series Transatlantic, Arendt is portrayed by Alexa Karolinski.[365][366]
Legacy
Hannah Arendt is considered one of the most influential political philosophers of the 20th century.[5] In 1998 Walter Laqueur stated "No twentieth-century philosopher and political thinker has at the present time as wide an echo", as philosopher, historian, sociologist and also journalist.[367] Arendt's legacy has been described as a cult.[367][368] In a 2016 review of a documentary about Arendt, the journalist A. O. Scott describes Hannah Arendt as "of unmatched range and rigor" as a thinker, although she is primarily known for the series of articles known as Eichmann in Jerusalem that she wrote for The New Yorker, and in particular for the one phrase "the banality of evil".[294]
She shunned publicity, never expecting, as she explained to Karl Jaspers in 1951, to see herself as a "cover girl" on the newsstands.[az][214] In Germany, there are tours available of sites associated with her life.[371]
The study of the life and work of Hannah Arendt, and of her political and philosophical theory is described as Arendtian.[260][372] In her will she established the Hannah Arendt Bluecher Literary Trust as the custodian of her writings and photographs.[373] Her personal library was deposited at Bard College at the Stevenson Library in 1976, and includes approximately 4,000 books, ephemera, and pamphlets from Arendt's last apartment as well as her desk (in McCarthy House).[374] The college has begun archiving some of the collection digitally, which is available at The Hannah Arendt Collection.[375] Most of her papers were deposited at the Library of Congress and her correspondence with her German friends and mentors, such as Heidegger, Blumenfeld and Jaspers, at the Deutsches Literaturarchiv in Marbach.[376] The Library of Congress listed more than 50 books written about her in 1998, and that number has continued to grow, as have the number of scholarly articles, estimated as 1000 at that time.[367]
Her life and work is recognized by the institutions most closely associated with her teaching, by the creation of Hannah Arendt Centers at both Bard (Hannah Arendt Center for Politics and Humanities)
In 2017 a journal, Arendt Studies, was launched to publish articles related to the study of the life, work, and legacy of Hannah Arendt.[383] Many places associated with her, have memorabilia of her on display, such as her student card at the University of Heidelberg (see image).[384] 2006, the centennial of her birth, saw commemorations of her work in conferences and celebrations around the world.[44]
Of the many photographic portraits of Arendt, that taken in 1944 by
Contemporary interest
The rise of nativism, such as the election of Donald Trump in the United States,[234][327][388] and concerns regarding an increasingly authoritarian style of governance has led to a surge of interest in Arendt and her writings,[389] including radio broadcasts[390] and writers, including Jeremy Adelman[145] and Zoe Williams,[391] to revisit Arendt's ideas to seek the extent to which they inform our understanding of such movements,[392][393] which are being described as "Dark Times".[394] At the same time Amazon reported that it had sold out of copies of The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951).[395] Michiko Kakutani has addressed what she refers to as "the death of truth".[396] In her 2018 book, The Death of Truth: Notes on Falsehood in the Age of Trump, she argues that the rise of totalitarianism has been founded on the violation of truth. She begins her book with an extensive quote from The Origins of Totalitarianism:[186]
The ideal subject of totalitarian rule is not the convinced Nazi or the convinced communist, but people for whom the distinction between fact and fiction (i.e., the reality of experience) and the distinction between true and false (i.e., the standards of thought) no longer exist[397][398]
Kakutani and others believed that Arendt's words speak not just events of a previous century but apply equally to the contemporary cultural landscape[399] populated with fake news and lies. She also draws on Arendt's essay "Lying in Politics" from Crises in the Republic[217] pointing to the lines:
The historian knows how vulnerable is the whole texture of facts in which we spend our daily life; it is always in danger of being perforated by single lies or torn to shreds by the organized lying of groups, nations, or classes, or denied and distorted, often carefully covered up by reams of falsehoods or simply allowed to fall into oblivion. Facts need testimony to be remembered and trustworthy witnesses to be established in order to find a secure dwelling place in the domain of human affairs[400]
Arendt drew attention to the critical role that propaganda plays in gaslighting populations, Kakutani observes, citing the passage:[401][402]
In an ever-changing, incomprehensible world the masses had reached the point where they would, at the same time, believe everything and nothing, think that everything was possible and that nothing was true . ... The totalitarian mass leaders based their propaganda on the correct psychological assumption that, under such conditions, one could make people believe the most fantastic statements one day, and trust that if the next day they were given irrefutable proof of their falsehood, they would take refuge in cynicism; instead of deserting the leaders who had lied to them, they would protest that they had known all along that the statement was a lie and would admire the leaders for their superior tactical cleverness[403]
Arendt took a broader perspective on history than merely totalitarianism in the early 20th century, stating "the deliberate falsehood and the outright lie have been used as legitimate means to achieve political ends since the beginning of recorded history."[404][405] Contemporary relevance is also reflected in the increasing use of the phrase, attributed to her, "No one has the right to obey" to reflect that actions result from choices, and hence judgement, and that we cannot disclaim responsibility for that which we have the power to act upon.[326] In addition those centers established to promote Arendtian studies continue to seek solutions to a wide range of contemporary issues in her writing.[406]
Arendt's teachings on obedience have also been linked to the controversial psychology experiments by Stanley Milgram, that implied that ordinary people can easily be induced to commit atrocities.[407][408] Milgram himself drew attention to this in 1974, stating that he was testing the theory that Eichmann like others would merely follow orders, but unlike Milgram she argued that actions involve responsibility.[409][410]
Arendt's theories on the political consequences of how nations deal with refugees have remained relevant and compelling. Arendt had observed first hand the displacement of large stateless and rightsless populations, treated not so much as people in need than as problems to solve, and in many cases, resist.[294] She wrote about this in her 1943 essay "We refugees".[411][412] Another Arendtian theme that finds an echo in contemporary society is her observation, inspired by Rilke, of the despair of not being heard, the futility of tragedy that finds no listener that can bring comfort, assurance and intervention. An example of this being gun violence in America and the resulting political inaction.[100]
In Search of the Last Agora, an illustrated documentary film by Lebanese director Rayyan Dabbous about Hannah Arendt's 1958 work The Human Condition, was released in 2018 to mark the book's 50th anniversary. Screened at Bard College, the experimental film is described as finding "new meaning in the political theorist's conceptions of politics, technology and society in the 1950s", particularly in her prediction of abuses of phenomena unknown in Arendt's time, including social media, intense globalization, and obsessive celebrity culture.[413]
Commemorations
Hannah Arendt's life and work continue to be commemorated in many different ways, including plaques (Gedenktafeln) indicating places she has lived. Public places and institutions bear her name,
See also
Notes
- ^ Königsberg was the East Prussian capital and after World War II became Kaliningrad, Russia.
- ^ Sozialistische Monatshefte was edited by the Königsberg Jewish scholar, Joseph Bloch, [de] and formed the focal point of Martha Arendt's Königsberg socialist discussion group
- ^ The young Hannah confided that she wished to marry Hermann Vogelstein when she grew up.[20]
- ^ Varnhagen would later become the subject of a biography by Hannah.[37]
- ^ From Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship (1796)
- ^ Anne Mendelssohn described her as someone who had "read everything"[46]
- Eric Weil in 1934, and worked for the French Resistance under the alias Dubois. She died on 5 July 1984[50]
- philologist.[51]
- ^ Martin Heidegger, a Roman Catholic, had married Elfride Petri on 21 March 1917. They had two sons, Jorg and Hermann[56]
- ^ Ettinger set out to write a biography of Arendt, but, being in poor health, never completed it, only this chapter being published as a separate work before she died[64]
- ^ The essay is preserved in the published correspondence between Arendt and Heidegger[72]
- ^ for instance "perhaps her youth will free itself from this spell"
- ^ Augustin and the Pauline freedom problem. A philosophical contribution to the genesis of the Christian-Western idea of freedom
- a posteriori, the other person one has encountered by coincidence – into the a priori of one's own life." – This pretty formula did admittedly not turn out to be true."[68]
- ^ Extramarital cohabitation was not unusual amongst Berlin intelligentsia, but would be considered scandalous in provincial university communities, necessitating their marriage before moving to Heidelberg and Frankfurt to pursue Günther's academic aspirations.[89]
- ^ Da es nun wahre Transzendenz in dieser geordneten Welt nicht gibt, gibt es auch nicht wahre Übersteigung, sondern nur Aufsteigen in andere Ränge
- ^ Echolosigkeit und das Wissen um die Vergeblichkeit ist die paradoxe, zweideutige und verzweifelte Situation, aus der allein die Duineser Elegien zu verstehen sind. Dieser bewußte Verzicht auf Gehörtwerden, diese Verzweiflung, nicht gehört werden zu können, schließlich der Wortzwang ohne Antwort ist der eigentliche Grund der Dunkelheit, Abruptheit und Überspanntheit des Stiles, in dem die Dichtung ihre eigenen Möglichkeiten und ihren Willen zur Form aufgibt.
- ^ Stern was advised that employment at a university was unlikely due to the rising power of the Nazis, adding: "Now it's the turn of the Nazis for a year or little more. After they fail, we'll give you the habilitation" ("Jetzt kommen erst einmal die Nazis dran für ein Jahr oder so. Wenn die dann abgewirtschaftet haben, werden wir Sie habilitieren").[104]
- ^ There are a number of theories as to his reason for adopting the pen name Anders, including Herbert Ihering's that there were too many writers called Stern, so he chose something "different" (anders); its sounding less Jewish,[68]; and not wanting to be seen as the son of his famous father.[107]
- ^ Pariavolk: In Religionssoziologie (The Sociology of Religion). While Arendt based her work on Weber, a number of earlier authors had also used this term, including Theodor Herzl[122]
- ^ "Original Assimilation" was first published in English in 2007, as part of the collection Jewish Writings.[135]
- ^ "Die jüdische Assimilation scheint heute in Deutschland ihren Bankrott anmelden zu müssen. Der allgemein gesellschaftliche und offiziell legitimierte Antisemitismus trifft in erster Linie das assimilierte Judentum, das sich nicht mehr durch Taufe und nicht mehr durch betonte Distanz zum Ostjudentum entlasten kann."[137]
- ^ The Rothschilds had headed the central Consistoire for a century but stood for everything Arendt did not, opposing immigration and any connection with German Jewry.[141][146]
- ^ Youth Aliyah, literally Youth Immigration, reflecting the fundamental Zionist tenet of "going up" to Jerusalem
- ^ Hannah Arendt's mother, Martha Arendt (born Cohn) had a sister Margarethe Fürst in Berlin, with whom the Arendts sought refuge for a while during World War I. Margarethe's son Ernst (Hannah Arendt's cousin) married Hannah's childhood friend Käthe Lewin, and they emigrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1934. There, their first daughter was named Hannah after Arendt ("Big Hannah"). Their second daughter, Edna Fürst (b. 1943), later married Michael Brocke and accompanied her great aunt Hannah Arendt at the Eichmann trial[151]
- ^ Arendt/Heidegger: Arendt confided to Heidegger's wife Elfride in a letter dated 10 February 1950, that when she left Marburg she was absolutely resolved never to love a man again, "And then I got married, just to get married, to a man I didn't love". Arendt goes on to say that she felt absolutely superior to things, that she believed she could have everything at her disposal, precisely because she expected nothing for herself. Finally she said that everything changed only when she met the man who would become her second husband.[72]
- ^ Gurs to Montauban, about 300 km
- Huguenot mayor of Montauban had made welcoming political refugees an official policy[164]
- ^ In December 2018, a plaque to recognize Arendt's stay in Lisbon was unveiled at the corner of Rua da Sociedade Farmacêutica and Conde Redondo, including a quotation from "We Refugees" (see image)[165][166]
- ^ Arendt to Jaspers 29 January 1946
- ^ Arguing that anti-semitism in France was a continuum from Dreyfus to Pétain[173]
- Salo Baron and Morris Raphael Cohen was renamed the Conference on Jewish Social Studies in 1955, and began publishing Jewish Social Studies in 1939[176][177]
- ^ The Commission, by then called Jewish Cultural Reconstruction (JCR), was largely the work of Hannah Arendt and Salo Baron
- ^ JCR was wound up in 1977
- Brecht's poem An die Nachgeborenen ("To Those Born After", 1938),[220] the first line of which reads Wirklich, ich lebe in finsteren Zeiten! (Truly, I live in dark times!). To both Brecht and Arendt, "Dark Times" was not merely a descriptive term for perceived atrocities but an explanation of the loss of guiding principles of theory, knowledge and explanation[221]
- ^ Latin has three nouns for love: amor, dilectio and caritas. The corresponding verbs for the first two are amare and diligere[224]
- ^ Matthew 22:39
- ^ Arendt explained to Karl Jaspers, in a letter dated 6 August 1955, that she intended to use St Augustine's concept of amor mundi as the title, as a token of gratitude[236]
- ^ Fugitive writings: Dealing with subjects of passing interest
- ^ Arendt/Heidegger: Arendt willed that her correspondence be taken to the Deutsches Literaturarchiv in Marbach in 1976 and sealed for 5 years, and Heidegger's family stipulated that it remained sealed during Martin Heidegger's wife Elfride's lifetime (1893–1992). In 1976, Elzbieta Ettinger sought access and was granted this for a planned biography after Elfride's death. The subsequent scandal following Ettinger's disclosures, led to a decision to publish the correspondence in entirety[63][65]
- ^ Arendt to Jaspers, 2 December 1960
- ^ "Er wollte Wir sagen, und dies Mitmachen und dies Wir-Sagen-Wollen war ja ganz genug, um die allergrössten Verbrechen möglich zu machen."
- ^ Arendt to Jaspers, 23 December 1960
- ^ A position that the judges would later agree with[301]
- ^ Arendt to Jaspers, 23 December 1960
- ^ Jaspers to Arendt 14 October 1960[310]
- ^ Letter to McCarthy 16 September 1963
- ^ The title vita activa (active life) is taken from Arendt's position in The Human Condition (1958) that thinking is a form of action, and that the active life is as important as the contemplative (vita contemplativa)[294]
- ^ The Palazzo degli Uffici Finanziari was originally the Casa del Fascio and the square, the Piazza Arnaldo Mussolini, and was erected as the Fascist headquarters for the region. The bas-relief is by Hans Piffrader
- ^ Ladin, German and Italian: Degnu n'a l dërt de ulghè – Kein Mensch hat das Recht zu gehorchen – Nessuno ha il diritto di obbedire
- ^ "Civil Disobedience" originally appeared, in somewhat different form, in The New Yorker. Versions of the other essays originally appeared in The New York Review of Books
- ^ Arendt wrote to Stein "It is my honest opinion that you are one of the best portrait photographers of the present day"[385]
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Sources
Articles (journals and proceedings)
- Allen, Wayne F. (1 July 1982). "Hannah Arendt: existential phenomenology and political freedom". from the original on 15 October 2021. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
- Bagchi, Barnita (January 2007). "Hannah Arendt, Education, and Liberation : A Comparative South Asian Feminist Perspective". Heidelberg Papers in South Asian and Comparative Politics (35).
- Balber, Samantha (2017). "Hannah Arendt: A Conscious Pariah and Her People". Footnotes. 1: 165–183. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
- S2CID 144497322.
- Burroughs, Michael D (2015). "Hannah Arendt, 'Reflections on Little Rock,' and White Ignorance". Critical Philosophy of Race. 3 (1): 52–78. S2CID 144235220.
- Calcagno, Antonio (January 2013). "The Desire For And Pleasure Of Evil: The Augustinian Limitations Of Arendtian Mind". .
- JSTOR 40244828.
- S2CID 154222580., reprinted in Aschheim (2001, pp. 47–64)
- Lebeau, Vicky (29 June 2016). "The Unwelcome Child: Elizabeth Eckford and Hannah Arendt". from the original on 16 October 2021. Retrieved 24 December 2018.
- Maier-Katkin, Daniel (November 2011). "The Reception of Hannah Arendt's Eichmann in Jerusalem in the United States 1963–2011". HannahArendt.net. 6 (1). from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
- S2CID 145642201.
- JSTOR 2504547.
- Morey, Maribel (20 December 2011). "Reassessing Hannah Arendt's "Reflections on Little Rock" (1959)". S2CID 144635339.
- Pickett, Adrienne (2009). "Images, Dialogue, and Aesthetic Education: Arendt's response to the Little Rock Crisis" (PDF). Philosophical Studies in Education. 40: 188–199. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 May 2016.
- Ray, Larry; Diemling, Maria (24 July 2016). "Arendt's 'conscious pariah' and the ambiguous figure of the subaltern" (PDF). (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2018. Retrieved 25 September 2018.
- Riepl-Schmidt, Mascha (15 February 2005). "Henriette Arendt". HannahArendt.net (in German). 1 (1). from the original on 19 July 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
- Rosenberg, Elissa (February 2012). "Walking in the city: memory and place". S2CID 144753542.
- S2CID 162242781.
- S2CID 201796942.
- Szécsényi, Endre (30 March 2005). The Hungarian Revolution in the "Reflections" by Hannah Arendt. Europe or the Globe? Eastern European Trajectories in Times of Integration and Globalization. Vienna: IWM. Archivedfrom the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
- Teixeira, Christina Heine (September 2006). "Wartesaal Lissabon 1941: Hannah Arendt und Heinrich Blücher". HannahArendt.net. 1 (2). from the original on 13 July 2020. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
- Villa, Dana (2009). "Hannah Arendt, 1906-1975". S2CID 148198536.
- JSTOR 23955552.
Rahel Varnhagen
- Cutting-Gray, Joanne (1991). "Hannah Arendt's Rahel Varnhagen". S2CID 170122103.
- Goldstein, Donald J. (Spring 2009). "Hannah Arendt's Shared Destiny with Rahel Varnhagen". Women in Judaism. 6 (1): 18. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
- Zebadúa Yáñez, Verónica (2018). "Reading the Lives of Others: Biography as Political Thought in Hannah Arendt and Simone de Beauvoir". S2CID 232175146.
Special issues and proceedings
- Ojakangas, Mika (2010a). "Arendt, Socrates, and the Ethics of Conscience" (PDF). Studies across Disciplines in the Humanities and Social Sciences. Vol. 8. pp. 67–85. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
- Durst, Margarete (2004). Birth and Natality in Hannah Arendt. Springer. pp. 777–797. ISBN 978-94-010-0047-5.
- "Hannah Arendt". JSTOR i40043622.
Audiovisual
- Berkowitz, Roger (2013). Hannah Arendt: A brief biography (DVD liner notes to Hannah Arendt). Zeitgeist Films.
- BBFC (2013). Hannah Arendt. Releases (Film) (in German, English, and Hebrew). British Board of Film Classification. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 29 July 2018.
- BBFC (2012). Hannah Arendt (Film) (in German, English, and Hebrew). Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 14 August 2018. (see also Hannah Arendt)
- Weigel, Moira (16 July 2013). "Heritage Girl Crush: On "Hannah Arendt"". Los Angeles Review of Books (Review). Archived from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 18 August 2018.
- Bragg, Melvyn; Stonebridge, Lyndsey; Sheffield, Frisbee; Eaglestone, Robert (2 February 2017). Hannah Arendt. Radio 4: In Our Time (Radio panel discussion). Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
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ignored (help) - Zeitgeist (2015). Vita Activa – The Spirit of Hannah Arendt (Documentary) (Film) (in German, English, and Hebrew). Zeitgeist Films. Archived from the original on 16 March 2020. Retrieved 4 June 2017.
- Scott, A. O. (5 April 2016). "Review: In 'Vita Activa: The Spirit of Hannah Arendt,' a Thinker More Relevant Than Ever". The New York Times (Review). Archived from the original on 23 May 2020. Retrieved 4 June 2017.
Books and monographs
- Zohar Mihaely, Hannah Arendt and the Crisis of Israeli Democracy, Oregon, Pickwick Publications, 2022.
- Adamson, Jane; Freadman, Richard; Parker, David, eds. (1998). Renegotiating Ethics in Literature, Philosophy, and Theory. ISBN 978-0-521-62938-6.
- ISBN 978-0-674-58716-8.
- "Ethics in many different voices" pp. 247–268, see also revised versions as Baier (1998, pp. 247–268) and Baier (1997, pp. 325–346)
- ISBN 978-1-5095-2863-9.
- ISBN 978-1-57392-906-6.
- Schroeder, Steven (2002). "Review of "Martin and Hannah: A Novel"". Essays in Philosophy (Review). 3 (1). from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 24 August 2018.
- ISBN 978-1-85984-911-8.
- ISBN 978-0-8021-9117-5.
- Hattem, Cornelis Van; Hattem, Kees van (2005). Superfluous people: a reflection on Hannah Arendt and evil. ISBN 978-0-7618-3304-8.
- ISBN 978-0-525-57484-2.
- Hayes, Chris (18 July 2018). "Michiko Kakutani's Book About Our Post-Truth Era". The New York Times (Review). Archived from the original on 4 September 2018. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
- Kielmansegg, Peter Graf; Mewes, Horst; Glaser-Schmidt, Elisabeth, eds. (1997). Hannah Arendt and Leo Strauss: German Émigrés and American Political Thought After World War II. ISBN 978-0-521-59936-8. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2018.
- Lamey, Andy (2011). Frontier Justice: The Global Refugee Crisis and What To Do About It. ISBN 978-0-307-36792-1.
- ISBN 978-0-06-280340-5. (see also Obedience to Authority)
- Most, Stephen (2017). Stories Make the World: Reflections on Storytelling and the Art of the Documentary. New York: Berghahn Books.
- ISBN 978-1-4008-9004-0.
- Richter, William L., ed. (2009). Approaches to Political Thought. ISBN 978-1-4616-3656-4.
- Robinson, Marc, ed. (1996). Altogether Elsewhere: Writers on Exile. ISBN 978-0-15-600389-6.
- Simmons, William Paul (2011). Human Rights Law and the Marginalized Other. ISBN 978-1-139-50326-6.
- Simmons, William Paul (2011), Arendt, Little Rock, and the Cauterization of the Marginalized Other (PDF) (Essay), archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2018
- ISBN 978-1-5036-0022-5.
- ISBN 978-3-11-033978-9.
Autobiography and biography
- AAAS (2018). Book of members, 1780 – present: A (PDF). Cambridge MA: American Academy of Arts and Sciences. p. 18. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
- ISBN 978-3-406-63278-5.
- Berkowitz, Roger (13 February 2012a). "The Cherry Battle". News (Review). Hannah Arendt Center, Bard College. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-300-07254-9.
- Brent, Frances (30 May 2013). "Arendt's Affair". Tablet (Review). Archived from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
- ISBN 978-3-451-04954-5. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 5 November 2018.
- — (2017). Hannah Arendt and Martin Heidegger: History of a Love. ISBN 978-0-253-02718-4. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
- Heller, Anne Conover (2015). Hannah Arendt: A Life in Dark Times.
- ISBN 978-0-271-04320-3.
- ISBN 978-0-15-657245-3.
- ISBN 978-0-231-12102-6.
- Maier-Katkin, Daniel (2010a). Stranger from Abroad: Hannah Arendt, Martin Heidegger, Friendship and Forgiveness. ISBN 978-0-393-07731-5.
- May, Derwent (1986). Hannah Arendt. ISBN 978-0-14-008116-9.
- Nixon, Jon (2015). Hannah Arendt and the Politics of Friendship. ISBN 978-1-4725-0754-9.
- Stangneth, Bettina (2014). Eichmann Before Jerusalem: The Unexamined Life of a Mass Murderer. ISBN 978-0-307-95968-3. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
- Vowinckel, Annette (2004). Hannah Arendt: zwischen deutscher Philosophie und jüdischer Politik [Hannah Arendt: Between German philosophy and Jewish politics] (in German). Lukas Verlag. ISBN 978-3-936872-36-1. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 26 July 2018. (full text Archived 19 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine)
- ISBN 978-0-300-10588-9.
Critical works
- Aschheim, Steven E., ed. (2001). Hannah Arendt in Jerusalem [Hannah Arendt Beyerushalayim, Hebrew University of Jerusalem 2007 (in Hebrew)]. ISBN 978-0-520-22057-7.
- Shenhav, Yehouda (3 May 2007). "All Aboard the Arendt Express". Haaretz (Review). Archived from the original on 31 July 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
- Berkowitz, Roger; Storey, Ian, eds. (2017). Artifacts of Thinking: Reading Hannah Arendt's Denktagebuch. ISBN 978-0-8232-7217-4.
- Bernauer, J.W., ed. (1987). Amor Mundi: Explorations in the Faith and Thought of Hannah Arendt. ISBN 978-94-009-3565-5.
- Bernauer, James W. (1987a). "The Faith of Hannah Arendt: Amor Mundi and its Critique – Assimilation of Religious Experience". pp. 1–28.
- ISBN 978-0-7456-6570-2.
- ISBN 978-0-253-11226-2. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2018.
- Bowen-Moore, Patricia (1989). Hannah Arendt's Philosophy of Natality. ISBN 978-1-349-20125-9. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
- Courtine-Denamy, Sylvie (2000) [1997 ISBN 978-0-8014-8758-3. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 9 October 2018.
- Grunenberg, Antonia [in German] (2018). "Hannah Arendt-Studien / Hannah Arendt Studies" (in English and German). Peter Lang. Archived from the original on 28 August 2018. Retrieved 27 August 2018.
- Hayden, Patrick, ed. (2014). Hannah Arendt: Key Concepts. ISBN 978-1-317-54588-0. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
- Hermsen, Joke J.; Villa, Dana Richard, eds. (1999). The Judge and the Spectator: Hannah Arendt's Political Philosophy. ISBN 978-90-429-0781-2. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
- Hinchman, Lewis P.; Hinchman, Sandra, eds. (1994). Hannah Arendt: Critical Essays. ISBN 978-0-7914-1853-6. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 14 September 2018.
- Jones, Kathleen B. (2013a). Diving for Pearls: A Thinking Journey with Hannah Arendt. Thinking Women Books. ISBN 978-0-9860586-0-8. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 6 October 2018. excerpt Archived 6 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine, see also Jones (2013)
- Kiess, John (2016). Hannah Arendt and Theology. ISBN 978-0-567-62851-0. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-8020-3521-9. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 22 July 2018.
- Luban, David. Arendt After Jerusalem: The Moral and Legal Philosophy (PDF). To be published. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 September 2018. Retrieved 14 December 2018.
- May, Larry; Kohn, Jerome, eds. (1997). Hannah Arendt: Twenty Years Later. ISBN 978-0-262-63182-2. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 8 September 2018.
- ISBN 978-1-4529-0338-5. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
- Ring, Jennifer (1998). The Political Consequences of Thinking: Gender and Judaism in the Work of Hannah Arendt. ISBN 978-1-4384-1739-4. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
- Swift, Simon (2008). Hannah Arendt. ISBN 978-1-134-09355-7. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
- Villa, Dana, ed. (2000). The Cambridge Companion to Hannah Arendt. ISBN 978-0-521-64571-3. text at Pensar el Espacio Público Archived 13 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine
Historical
- ISBN 978-0-8132-0092-7. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2018.
- — (2008). Tractatus in epistolam Joannis ad Parthos [Homilies on the First Epistle of John]. Translated by Boniface Ramsay. ISBN 978-1-56548-289-0. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2018., available in Latin as
- ISBN 978-0-521-67165-1. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
- — (1793). Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft. Königsberg: Friedrich Nicolovius. p. 99. Archived from the original on 8 September 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2018.
- — (1838). Religion Within the Boundary of Pure Reason. Translated by J. W. Semple. Edinburgh: Thomas Clark. p. 125.
- Gallica, and reproduced on Wikisource
- Rühle-Gerstel, Alice (1932). Das Frauenproblem der Gegenwart: eine psychologische Bilanz [Contemporary Women's Issues: A psychological balance sheet] (in German). S. Hirzel. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-520-03500-3. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 23 September 2018. full text available on Internet Archive
- Weil, Hans [in German] (1967) [1930]. Die Entstehung des deutschen Bildungsprinzips [The Origin of the German Educational Principle]. H. Bouvier. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
Chapters and contributions
- Arendt, Hannah (1993a) [1953]. "Ideology and Terror" (PDF). pp. 338–348. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 August 2020.
- Baier, Annette C (1997). Ethics in many different voices. pp. 325–346., in May & Kohn (1997)
- — (1998). Ethics in many different voices. pp. 247–268., in Adamson, Freadman & Parker (1998)
- Beiner, Ronald (1997). Love and worldliness: Hannah Arendt's reading of Saint Augustine. pp. 269–284., in May & Kohn (1997)
- Brocke, Edna [in German] (2009a). Afterword. "Big Hannah" – My Aunt. pp. 512–522., in Arendt (2009a)
- ISBN 978-0-226-92457-1. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2018., in Arendt (2013)
- Dries, Christian (2011). Günther Anders und Hannah Arendt - eine Beziehungsskizze (in German). pp. 71–140., in Anders (2011)
- ISBN 978-1-101-00716-7. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 29 July 2018., in Arendt (2006a)
- Fry, Karin (2014). Natality (PDF). pp. 23–35. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 September 2018., in Hayden (2014)
- Guilherme, Alexandre and Morgan, W. John, 'Hannah Arendt (1906–1975)-dialogue as a public space'. Chapter 4 in Philosophy, Dialogue, and Education: Nine modern European philosophers, Routledge, London and New York, pp. 55–71, ISBN 978-1-138-83149-0.
- Gould, Carol (2009). Hannah Arendt and Remembrance. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 65–72. ISBN 978-1-4616-3656-4. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2018., in Richter (2009)
- Kippenberger, Hans (8 February 1936). 376a. Vertraulicher Bericht Kippenbergers uber den Parteiselbstschutz (PSS) der KPD [Confidential report by Kippenberger on the party self-protection of the KPD]. Moscow. pp. 1182–1185.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link), in Weber et al (2014) - Luban, David (1994). Explaining Dark Times: Hannah Arendt's Theory of Theory. pp. 79–110., in Hinchman & Hinchman (1994)
- Scott, Joanna Vecchiarelli; Stark, Judith Chelius (1996). Preface: Rediscovering Love and Saint Augustine. University of Chicago Press. pp. vii–xviii. ISBN 978-0-226-02596-4. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2018., in Arendt (1996)
- Vollrath, Ernst (1997). Hannah Arendt: A German-American Jewess views the United States - and looks back to Germany. pp. 45–58., in Kielmansegg et al (1997)
- Weyembergh, Maurice (1999). Remembrance and Oblivion. Peeters Publishers. pp. 79–96. ISBN 978-90-429-0781-2. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018., in Hermsen & Villa (1999)
Dictionaries and encyclopedias
- Das Aussprachewörterbuch (in German) (7th ed.). Duden. 2015.
- Thomson Gale. Archivedfrom the original on 6 January 2019. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
- d'Entreves, Maurizio Passerin (2014). "Hannah Arendt". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archive. Stanford University. Archived from the original on 30 January 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2019. (Version: January 2019 Archived 30 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine)
- ISBN 978-0-415-91934-0. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
- Whitfield, Stephen J. (1998). Hannah Arendt (1906 - 1975). pp. 61–64. Archived from the original on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 25 July 2018., in Hyman & Moore (1998)
- Lovett, Frank (4 June 2018). "Republicanism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archive. Stanford University. Archived from the original on 25 October 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
- Wood, Kelsey (7 January 2004). "Hannah Arendt". The Literary Encyclopedia. The Literary Dictionary Company Limited. Archived from the original on 24 July 2018. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
- Yar, Majid. "Hannah Arendt (1906—1975)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
- "Hannah Arendt". Encyclopedia of World Biography. The Gale Group. 2010. Archived from the originalon 22 April 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2018.
- Cullen-DuPont, Kathryn (2014) [1996]. Encyclopedia of Women's History in America (2nd ed.). ISBN 978-1-4381-1033-2. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
Magazines
- Wilson Quarterly. Archived from the originalon 6 October 2018. Retrieved 2 September 2018.
- Bernstein, Richard (19 August 2018a). "The Urgent Relevance of Hannah Arendt". The Philosophers' Magazine. No. 82. pp. 24–31. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2019.
- Atlantic Monthly., reprinted in Gellhorn (1988, pp. 217–233)
- Heinrich, Kaspar (19 November 2013). "Fotografien von Fred Stein: Der Poet mit der Kleinbildkamera". Der Spiegel (in German). Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
- Held, Virginia; Kazin, Alfred (21 October 1982). "Feminism & Hannah Arendt". The New York Review of Books. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 20 November 2018.
- Howe, Irving (5 June 2013). "Banality and Brilliance". Dissent. Archived from the original on 7 September 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2018., reprinted from Howe (1984, pp. 269ff)
- Jones, Kathleen B. (12 November 2013). "Hannah Arendt's Female Friends". Los Angeles Review of Books. Archived from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 18 August 2018., reprinted in Jones (2013a)
- Kirsch, Adam (12 January 2009). "Beware of Pity: Hannah Arendt and the power of the impersonal". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 18 July 2018. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
- Kohler, Lotte (21 March 1996). "The Arendt/Heidegger Affair". The New York Review of Books. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
- Maier-Katkin, Daniel (2010). "How Hannah Arendt Was Labeled an "Enemy of Israel"". from the original on 9 March 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
- Obermair, Hannes (April 2018). "Da Hans a Hannah—il "duce" di Bolzano e la sfida di Arendt" [From Hans to Hannah—Mussolini in Bolzano and Arendt's Challenge]. Il Cristallo. Rassegna di Varia Umanità (in Italian). Vol. 60, no. 1. pp. 27–32. from the original on 16 October 2021. Retrieved 23 November 2018.
- Seliger, Ralph (15 April 2011). "Hannah Arendt: From Iconoclast to Icon". Tikkun. Archived from the original on 30 March 2016. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
Newspapers
- Berkowitz, Roger (7 July 2013a). "Misreading 'Eichmann in Jerusalem'". The New York Times (Opinionator: The Stone). Archived from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- Bernstein, Richard J. (20 June 2018b). "The Illuminations of Hannah Arendt". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2019.
- Bird, David (4 December 1975a). "Hannah Arendt, Political Scientist Dead". The New York Times (Obituary). Archived from the original on 3 May 2021. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
- Bird, David (5 December 1975b). "Hannah Arendt, Political Scientist Dead". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 15 November 2019.
- Butler, Judith (29 August 2011). "Hannah Arendt's challenge to Adolf Eichmann". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 16 December 2018. Retrieved 13 December 2018.
- Grenier, Elizabeth (2 February 2017). "Why the world is turning to Hannah Arendt to explain Trump". DW. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 4 June 2017.
- Hanlon, Aaron (31 August 2018). "Postmodernism didn't cause Trump. It explains him". Washington Post. Archivedfrom the original on 12 September 2018. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
- Invernizzi-Accetti, Carlo (6 December 2017). "A small Italian town can teach the world how to defuse controversial monuments". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 September 2018. Retrieved 5 September 2018.
- Kakutani, Michiko (14 July 2018a). "The death of truth: how we gave up on facts and ended up with Trump". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 3 September 2018. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
- Kramer, Henri (1 March 2017). "Gedenktafel für Hannah Arendt in Babelsberg". Potsdamer Neueste Nachrichten (in German). Archived from the original on 16 September 2018. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
- Moreira, Cristiana Faria (23 December 2017). "Hannah Arendt. A passagem por Lisboa a caminho da liberdade". Publico (in Portuguese). Archivedfrom the original on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2019.
- Pfeffer, Anshel (9 May 2008). "Dear Hannah". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 8 January 2018. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
- Sznaider, Natan (20 October 2006). "Human, citizen, Jew". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
- Tavares, Rui (10 December 2018). "Hannah Arendt em Lisboa". Publico (in Portuguese). Archivedfrom the original on 6 October 2019. Retrieved 20 February 2019.
- Williams, Zoe (1 February 2017). "Totalitarianism in the age of Trump: lessons from Hannah Arendt". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 June 2020. Retrieved 4 June 2017.
- "Killer of 6,000,000; Adolf Eichmann". The New York Times. 26 May 1960. p. 18. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
- "'Show' Trial Promised". The New York Times. 28 May 1960. p. 9. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2018.
Theses
- Herman, Dana (2008). Hashavat Avedah: a history of Jewish Cultural Reconstruction, Inc (PhD thesis). Montreal: Department of History, McGill University. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
Websites
- Fry, Karin (2009). "Hannah Arendt 1906–1975: Philosophy of Mind, Social & Political Philosophy". Women Philosophers. Society for the Study of Women Philosophers. Archived from the original on 24 July 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
- "Fred Stein: Hannah Arendt, photograph (1944): Philosopher in a contemplative pose". Arts in Exile (Virtual exhibition). Archived from the original on 2 August 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
- Barry, James, ed. (2017). "Arendt Studies" (journal). Archived from the original on 15 August 2018. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
- Addison, Sam (1972–1974). "Hannah Arendt: The Life of the Mind". Gifford Lectures. University of Aberdeen. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
- "Hannah Arendt & the University of Heidelberg". Between Truth and Hope. 30 October 2016. Archived from the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
- "Pensar el Espacio Público ~ Seminario de Filosofía Política" (in Spanish). 2014–2015. Archived from the original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
- "Hannah Arendt. Vertrauen in das Menschliche" (PDF) (Exhibition brochure) (in German). Goethe Institut. 2011. Archived(PDF) from the original on 1 September 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
- Krieghofer, Gerald (1 July 2017). ""Niemand hat das Recht zu gehorchen." Hannah Arendt (angeblich)". Zitaträtsel. Archived from the original on 5 September 2018. Retrieved 5 September 2018.
- Miller, Joshua A. (25 September 2017). "How the Schocken Books collections changed Arendt scholarship". Anotherpanacea. Archived from the original on 5 September 2018. Retrieved 5 September 2018.
- "Obedience and Dictatorship". Desperado Philosophy. 22 December 2017. Archived from the original on 7 September 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- Wolters, Eugene (16 July 2013). "Everyone is Wrong About Hannah Arendt". Critical-Theory. Archived from the original on 6 September 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- Hill, Samantha Rose (26 March 2017). "What does it mean to love the world? Hannah Arendt and Amor Mundi". openDemocracy. Archived from the original on 8 September 2018. Retrieved 8 September 2018.
- "Ten things Hannah Arendt said that are eerily relevant in today's political times". Scroll.in. 4 December 2017. Archived from the original on 1 October 2019. Retrieved 8 September 2018.
- Brecht, Bertolt. "An die Nachgeborenen". Lyrik-line: Listen to the poet (in German). Haus für Poesie. Archived from the original on 15 September 2018. Retrieved 14 September 2018. – includes Brecht reading (english Archived 15 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine)
- Coombes, Thomas (12 February 2017). "Why we all need to read 'The Origins of Totalitarianism'". Medium. Archived from the original on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 19 September 2018.
- Gold, Hannah (29 January 2017). "Amazon Needs to Restock Hannah Arendt's The Origins of Totalitarianism". Jezebel. Archived from the original on 30 August 2018. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
- "Hannah Arendt". kulturreise-ideen (in German). Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2018.
- Hill, Samantha Rose (6 December 2015). "A Meditation on Arendt, Rilke, & Guns". Hannah Arendt Center. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
- Rilke, Rainer Maria (1912–1922). "Duineser Elegien" (in German). Zeno. Archived from the original on 18 October 2018. Retrieved 17 October 2018. (English translation by A. S. Kline 2004)
- Paula, Luisa (28 December 2018). "Hannah Arendt em Lisboa". Espaço Crítico (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 21 February 2019. Retrieved 20 February 2019.
Biography and timelines
- AAAL. "Academy Members: Deceased". Members. American Academy of Arts and Letters. Archived from the original on 8 October 2020. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
- Heller, Anne C (6 July 2015a). "Hannah Arendt: A Brief Chronology". Archived from the original on 17 August 2018. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
- "Hannah Arendt". Monoskop. 24 July 2018. Archived from the original on 27 July 2018. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
- "Hannah Arendt". Contemporary Thinkers. The Foundation for Constitutional Government. 2018. Archived from the original on 15 March 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
Institutions, locations and organizations
- Bernstein, Richard J. (2017). "Hannah Arendt Center". New York: The New School for Social Research. Archived from the original on 15 August 2018. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
- Bhabha, Homi K.; Weigel, Sigrid (March 2018). "We Refugees« – 75 Years Later. Hannah Arendt's Reflections on Human Rights and the Human Condition". Berlin: Zentrum für Literatur- und Kulturforschung. Archived from the original on 26 November 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2018.
- "Hannah Arendt Centre". Institut für Philosophie: Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 27 August 2018.
- "Hannah Arendt Center for Political Studies". Department of Human Sciences, University of Verona. 2018. Archived from the original on 11 September 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
- "Hannah Arendt Gymnasium, Haßloch" (in German). Archived from the original on 31 July 2018. Retrieved 31 July 2018.
- "Hannah Arendt Gymnasium, Berlin" (in German). 2018. Archived from the original on 14 August 2018. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
- Dries, Christian (July 2018). "Vita Günther Anders (1902–1992)". Translated by Christopher John Müller. Internationale Günther Anders Gesellschaft. Archived from the original on 14 October 2017. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
- Kirscher, Gilbert (27 March 2003). "Éric Weil : A Biography". Institut Eric Weil-Université de Lille. Archived from the originalon 28 August 2018. Retrieved 27 August 2018.
- GDW (2016). "Hannah Arendt". Exile and Resistance. German Resistance Memorial Center. Archived from the original on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 19 September 2018.
- "Hannah Arendt Tage". Das offizielle Portal der Region und der Landeshauptstadt Hannover. City of Hanover. Archived from the original on 28 July 2018. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
- "Hannah Arendt in Hannover". Das offizielle Portal der Region und der Landeshauptstadt Hannover. City of Hanover. 22 August 2017. Archived from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
- CAS (2011). "Guide to the Center for Advanced Studies Records, 1958 – 1969". Wesleyan University Library. Archived from the original on 24 June 2018. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
- UNHCR (2 August 2017). "Arendt, Hannah". UNHCR Central Europe. Archivedfrom the original on 2 August 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
- "Orte des Erinnerns – Denkmal im Bayerischen Viertel, 1993 (Berlin-Schöneberg)" (in German). Kunstgeschichtliche Gesellschaft zu Berlin. 2018. Archived from the original on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 19 September 2018.
Hannah Arendt Center (Bard)
- "The Hannah Arendt Center for Politics and Humanities at Bard College". Archived from the original on 14 August 2018. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
- "McCarthy House". About Us. The Hannah Arendt Center. Archived from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 18 September 2018.
- Bard. "The Hannah Arendt Collection". Hannah Arendt Center, Stevenson Library, Bard College. Archived from the original on 27 July 2018. Retrieved 29 July 2018.
- Kettler, David (2009). "Hannah Arendt Collection: Arendt on Mannheim". Archived from the original on 21 September 2018. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
- "The Hannah Arendt Center". Medium. Archived from the original on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
- "Amor Mundi". Medium. Archived from the original on 27 October 2018. Retrieved 26 October 2018.
- "Film Screening: In Search of The Last Agora". Hannah Arendt Center News. 15 November 2018. Archived from the original on 28 September 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2019.
Maps
- "Rue Hannah Arendt". Google Maps. Archived from the original on 8 October 2018. Retrieved 8 October 2018.
External images
- "Hannah Arendt (1906—1975)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Photograph of commemorative stamp). 1988. Archived from the original on 8 August 2018. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
- "Hannah Arendt, stamp, Germany 2006" (Photograph of commemorative stamp). UNHCR. 2006. Archivedfrom the original on 12 January 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
- "Hannah Arendts Erkennungskarte der Universität Heidelberg 1928". Bild des Monats (Student identity card). University of Heidelberg. November 2015. Archivedfrom the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
- "Cover". Saturday Review of Literature (Cover image). 24 March 1951. Archived from the original on 26 September 2018. Retrieved 25 September 2018.
- "Plaque". Lisbon City Council. 10 December 2018. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 25 September 2018.
Further reading
External links
- Hannah Arendt: "Zur Person". Full Interview (with English subtitles) (video) (in German) (published 8 April 2013). 28 October 1964. Archived from the original on 15 November 2021 – via YouTube.
- "Hannah Arendt Contributions". The New York Review of Books. Retrieved 11 August 2018.