Opuntia
Opuntia | |
---|---|
O. littoralis var. vaseyi | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Order: | Caryophyllales |
Family: | Cactaceae |
Subfamily: | Opuntioideae |
Tribe: | Opuntieae
|
Genus: | Opuntia Mill. |
Species | |
Many, see text. | |
Synonyms | |
and see text |
Opuntia, commonly called the prickly pear cactus, is a
Description
Growth
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Bud appears
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Bud grows
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Bud begins pad transformation
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Bud completes pad transformation
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Pad continues growth
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Edible pad (tender)
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Mature pad
Chemistry
Opuntia contains a range of
Taxonomy
When Carl Linnaeus published Species Plantarum in 1753 – the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature – he placed all the species of cactus known to him in one genus, Cactus. In 1754, the Scottish botanist Philip Miller divided them into several genera, including Opuntia. He distinguished the genus largely on the form of its flowers and fruits.[6]
Considerable variation of taxonomy occurs within Opuntia species, resulting in names being created for variants or subtypes within a species, and use of DNA sequencing to define and isolate various species.[1]
Species
Opuntia
Species accepted by Plants of the World Online, as of October 2022[update], are listed below, together with some species accepted by other sources, where the name preferred by Plants of the World Online is also given.[9]
- Opuntia abjecta Small ex Britton & Rose
- Opuntia aciculata Griffiths – Chenille prickly pear, old man's whiskers, cowboy's red whiskers
- Opuntia × aequatorialis Britton & Rose
- Opuntia × alta Griffiths
- Opuntia altomagdalenensis Xhonneux
- Opuntia amarilla Griffiths
- Opuntia ammophila, synonym of Opuntia austrina
- Opuntia anacantha, synonym of Opuntia elata var. elata
- Opuntia anahuacensis Griffiths
- Opuntia × andersonii H.M.Hern., Gómez-Hin. & Bárcenas
- Opuntia arechavaletae Speg.
- Opuntia arenaria, synonym of Opuntia polyacantha var. arenaria – dune prickly pear; diploid (2n=22)
- Opuntia articulata, synonym of Tephrocactus articulatus
- Opuntia atrispina Griffiths
- Opuntia auberi Pfeiff.
- Opuntia aurantiaca Lindl.
- Opuntia aurea E.M.Baxter – hexaploid (2n=66)
- Opuntia aureispina (S.Brack & K.D.Heil) Pinkava & B.D.Parfitt
- Opuntia austrina Small
- Opuntia azurea Rose
- Opuntia basilaris Engelm. & J.M.Bigelow – beavertail cactus; diploid (2n=22)
- Opuntia bentonii, synonym of Opuntia stricta
- Opuntia bonplandii (Kunth) F.A.C.Weber
- Opuntia bravoana E.M.Baxter
- Opuntia caboensis F.Mercado & León de la Luz
- Opuntia cacanapa, synonym of Opuntia engelmannii var. cacanapa
- Opuntia camanchica Engelm. & J.M.Bigelow
- Opuntia caracassana Salm-Dyck
- Opuntia × carstenii R.Puente & C.Hamann
- Opuntia cespitosa Raf.
- Opuntia chaffeyi Britton & Rose
- Opuntia × charlestonensis Clokey
- Opuntia chiangiana Scheinvar & Manzanero
- Opuntia chisosensis (M.S.Anthony) D.J.Ferguson
- Mojave deserts; diploid (2n=22)
- Opuntia clarkiorum Rebman
- Opuntia cochenillifera (L.) Mill.
- Opuntia × cochinera Griffiths
- Opuntia × coloradensis D.J.Barnett & Donnie Barnett
- Opuntia × columbiana Griffiths
- Opuntia crassa Haw.
- Opuntia crystalenia Griffiths
- Opuntia cubensis Britton & Rose
- Opuntia curassavica (L.) Mill.
- Opuntia × curvispina Griffiths
- Opuntia deamii Rose
- Opuntia × debreczyi Szutorisz
- Opuntia decumbens Salm-Dyck
- Opuntia dejecta Salm-Dyck
- Opuntia delafuentiana Martínez-Gonz., Luna-Vega, Gallegos & García-Sand.
- Opuntia × demissa Griffiths
- Opuntia depressa Rose
- Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw.
- Opuntia diploursina, synonym of Opuntia polyacantha var. erinacea – found around Grand Canyon and Lake Mead National Recreation Area; diploid (2n=22); resembles O. trichophora
- Opuntia discolor Britton & Rose
- Opuntia drummondii Graham
- Opuntia dulcis Engelm.
- Opuntia echinocarpa - see Cylindropuntia echinocarpa
- Opuntia eichlamii Rose
- Opuntia elata Link & Otto ex Salm-Dyck
- Opuntia elatior Mill.
- Opuntia elizondoana E.Sánchez & Villaseñor
- Opuntia engelmannii Salm-Dyck ex Engelm. – Engelmann's prickly pear, cow's-tongue prickly pear, desert prickly pear, discus prickly pear, Texas prickly pear, calico cactus; hexaploid (2n=66)
- Opuntia escuintlensis (Matuda) Lodé
- Opuntia excelsa Sánchez-Mej.
- Opuntia feroacantha Britton & Rose
- Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. – Indian fig opuntia, cultivated
- Opuntia fragilis (Nutt.) Haw. – little prickly pear, brittle cactus, found in the Great Plains, parts of the Midwest and in several Canadian provinces, up to 56°N.[10]
- Opuntia fuliginosa Griffiths
- Opuntia galapageia Hensl. – Galápagos prickly pear, Galápagos Islands
- Opuntia gallegiana Scheinvar & Olalde
- Opuntia gosseliniana F.A.C.Weber – violet prickly pear
- Opuntia guatemalensis Britton & Rose
- Opuntia guilanchii Griffiths
- Opuntia hitchcockii J.G.Ortega
- Opuntia hondurensis Standl.
- Opuntia howeyi J.A.Purpus
- Opuntia huajuapensis Bravo
- Opuntia humifusa (Raf.) Raf. – eastern prickly pear (sometimes included in O. compressa); tetraploid (2n=44); range includes humid regions of Eastern United States and northerly regions into Canada
- Opuntia hyptiacantha F.A.C.Weber
- Opuntia inaequilateralis A.Berger
- Opuntia inaperta (Schott ex Griffiths) D.R.Hunt
- Opuntia invicta, synonym of Grusonia invicta
- Opuntia jaliscana Bravo
- Opuntia lagunae E.M.Baxter
- Opuntia lasiacantha Pfeiff.
- Opuntia leucotricha DC. – arborescent prickly pear, Aaron's beard cactus, semaphore cactus, Duraznillo blanco, nopal blanco
- Opuntia lindheimeri – cowtongue prickly pear
- Opuntia littoralis (Engelm.) Cockerell – coastal prickly pear, sprawling prickly pear
- Opuntia lutea (Rose) D.R.Hunt
- Opuntia mackensenii Rose
- Opuntia macrocentra Engelm. – black-spined prickly pear, purple prickly pear, found in southwest USA and northern Mexico
- Opuntia macrorhiza Engelm. – Plains prickly pear, found throughout the Great Plains except for the northernmost areas (not found in North Dakota), and extending sporadically eastward as far as Kentucky; tetraploid (2n=44)
- Opuntia mantaroensis Guiggi
- Opuntia matudae Scheinvar – xoconostle (syn. O. joconostle)
- Opuntia maxima Mill.
- Opuntia megapotamica Arechav.
- Opuntia megarrhiza Rose
- Opuntia mesacantha Raf.
- Opuntia microdasys (Lehm.) Pfeiff. – bunny ears cactus, polka-dot cactus
- Opuntia militaris Britton & Rose
- Opuntia monacanthos (Willd.) Haw. (also spelt O. monacantha) – common prickly pear
- Opuntia nemoralis Griffiths
- Opuntia × occidentalis Engelm. & J.M.Bigelow
- Opuntia ochrocentra Small ex Britton & Rose
- Opuntia orbiculata Salm-Dyck ex Pfeiff.
- Opuntia oricola Philbrick
- Opuntia pachyrrhiza H.M.Hern., Gómez-Hin. & Bárcenas
- Opuntia pailana, synonym of O. leucotricha
- Opuntia parviclada S.Arias & Gama
- Opuntia peckii J.A.Purpus
- Opuntia perotensis Scheinvar, Olalde & Gallegos
- Opuntia phaeacantha Engelm. – tulip prickly pear, includes plateau prickly pear, brown-spined prickly pear, Mojave prickly pear, Kingman prickly pear; hexaploid (2n=66)
- Opuntia picardoi, synonym of Airampoa erectoclada
- Opuntia pilifera F.A.C.Weber
- Opuntia pinkavae B.D.Parfitt – Pinkava prickly pear; octoploid (2n=88), named in honor of Donald John Pinkava
- Opuntia pittieri Britton & Rose
- Opuntia polyacantha Haw. – Plains prickly pear, Starvation Prickly pear, Panhandle prickly pear, found in the Great Plains, Great Basin, Mojave Desert, Colorado Plateau, and the Rocky Mountains, syn. Opuntia rhodantha K.Schum.; tetraploid (2n=44)
- Opuntia pottsii Salm-Dyck
- Opuntia preciadoae Scheinvar, Olalde, Gallegos & J.Morales S.
- Opuntia puberula Pfeiff.
- Opuntia pubescens H.L.Wendl. ex Pfeiff.
- Opuntia pycnantha Engelm.
- Opuntia quimilo K.Schum.
- Opuntia quitensis F.A.C.Weber – Red Buttons opuntia (syn. Opuntia macbridei, Opuntia johnsonii, Platyopuntia quitensis)
- Opuntia rastrera F.A.C.Weber
- Opuntia repens Bello
- Opuntia retrorsa Speg.
- Opuntia ritteri A.Berger
- Opuntia robinsonii J.G.Ortega
- Opuntia robusta H.L.Wendl. ex Pfeiff.
- Opuntia × rooneyi M.P.Griff.
- Opuntia rufida Engelm.
- Opuntia rzedowskii Scheinvar
- Opuntia sanguinea Proctor
- Opuntia scheeri F.A.C.Weber
- Opuntia schumannii F.A.C.Weber ex A.Berger
- Opuntia setispina Engelm., synonym of Opuntia pottsii
- Opuntia setocarpa Arreola-Nava, Guzm.-Hern. & Cuevas
- Opuntia sierralagunensis León de la Luz & F.Mercado
- Opuntia soederstromiana Britton & Rose
- Opuntia spinosibacca M.S.Anthony
- Opuntia spinulifera Salm-Dyck
- Opuntia stenarthra K.Schum.
- Opuntia stenopetala Engelm.
- Opuntia streptacantha Lem.
- Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw. – erect prickly pear, spineless prickly pear
- Opuntia strigil Engelm.
- Opuntia sulphurea G.Don ex Salm-Dyck
- Opuntia tapona Engelm. ex J.M.Coult.
- Opuntia tehuacana S.Arias & U.Guzmán
- Opuntia tehuantepecana (Bravo) Bravo
- Opuntia tezontepecana Gallegos & Scheinvar
- Opuntia tomentosa Salm-Dyck – woollyjoint prickly pear
- Opuntia tortispina Engelm. & J.M.Bigelow
- Opuntia triacanthos (Willd.) Sweet (also spelt Opuntia triacantha)
- Opuntia trichophora diploid (2n=22)
- Opuntia tuna (L.) Mill.
- Opuntia tunoidea Gibbes
- Opuntia × vaseyi (J.M.Coult.) Britton & Rose
- Opuntia velutina F.A.C.Weber
- Opuntia wilcoxii Britton & Rose
- Opuntia zacuapanensis A.Berger
- Opuntia zamudioi Scheinvar
Formerly in Opuntia
- Austrocylindropuntia
- Brasiliopuntia
- Corynopuntia
- Cylindropuntia
- Disocactus phyllanthoides (as O. speciosa)
- Micropuntia
- Miqueliopuntia
Chollas
Chollas, now recognized to belong to the distinct genus Cylindropuntia, are distinguished by having cylindrical, rather than flattened, stem segments with large barbed spines. The stem joints of several species, notably the
Breeding
One of the ancient homes of the cactus pear, Mexico, ran a
Distribution and habitat
Like most true cactus species, prickly pears are native only to the
Opuntia species are the most cold-tolerant of the lowland cacti, extending into western and southern Canada. One subspecies, O. fragilis var. fragilis, has been found growing along the Beatton River in north-eastern British Columbia, southwest of Cecil Lake at 56° 17’ N latitude and 120° 39’ W longitude.[14] Others are seen in the Kleskun Hills Natural Area of north-west Alberta at 55° 15’ 30’’ N latitude and 118° 30’ 36’’ W longitude.[15]
Prickly pears produce a fruit known as tuna, commonly eaten in
Prickly pears (mostly O. stricta) were originally imported into Europe during the 16th century.
The first introduction of prickly pears into Australia is ascribed to the founding governor of the New South Wales colony, Arthur Phillip, and the earliest European colonists, in 1788. Brought from Brazil to Sydney, they were most likely O. monacantha. That variety did not spread beyond the east coast. However, a number of other types of prickly pear were introduced to Australian gardens in the mid-19th century. The cactus was also used as agricultural fencing and a feedstock for animals in times of drought,[18][19] as well as in an attempt to establish a cochineal dye industry.
The cactus quickly became a widespread
In 1919, the
Natural distribution of the plant occurs via consumption and associated seed dispersal by many animals, including antelopes, nonhuman primates, elephants, birds, and humans.[1] When ingested by elephants, the sharp components of the plant cause harm to the mouth, stomach, and intestines.[21]
Ecology
O. ficus-indica thrives in regions with mild winters having a prolonged dry spell followed by hot summers with occasional rain and relatively low humidity.
Opuntia species are primarily pollinated by bees, including some bee genera (Diadasia and Lithurgus) that contain specialist pollinators (oligoleges) that exclusively visit Opuntia.[22] Only a few Opuntia species, such as O. cochenillifera and O. stenopetala, are pollinated by hummingbirds.[22][23]
Animals that eat Opuntia include the
Toxicity
Although the plants are edible, the pointed hairs should not be eaten, and similar species with milky sap are suspect.[24]
Uses
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
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Energy | 172 kJ (41 kcal) |
9.6 g | |
Dietary fiber | 3.6 g |
0.5 g | |
0.7 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 3% 0.5 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 6% 0.1 mg |
Folate (B9) | 2% 6 μg |
Vitamin C | 16% 14.0 mg |
Vitamin E | 0% 0 mg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 4% 56 mg |
Iron | 2% 0.3 mg |
Magnesium | 20% 85 mg |
Phosphorus | 2% 24 mg |
Potassium | 7% 220 mg |
Zinc | 1% 0.1 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 88 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[25] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[26] |
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Prickly pear fruit at a market inZacatecas, Mexico
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Close-up of fruit
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A box of prickly pear candy, often sold in Southwest U.S. gift shops
Nutrition
Raw opuntia leaves are 88% water, 10%
in significant content.Regional food uses
The fruit of prickly pears, commonly called cactus fruit, cactus fig, Indian fig (meaning "Native American", not "of India"), nopales[27] or tuna in Spanish,[28] is edible, although it must be peeled carefully to remove the small spines on the outer skin before consumption.[29] If the outer layer is not properly removed, glochids can be ingested, causing discomfort of the throat, lips, and tongue, as the small spines are easily lodged in the skin. Native Americans like the Tequesta would roll the fruit around in a suitable medium (e.g. grit) to "sand" off the glochids. Alternatively, rotating the fruit in the flame of a campfire or torch has been used to remove the glochids. Today, parthenocarpic (seedless) cultivars are also available. The seeds can be used for flour.[30]
In Mexico, prickly pears are often used to make appetizers, soups, salads, entrees, vegetable dishes, breads, desserts, beverages,
Opuntia ficus-indica has been introduced to Europe, and flourishes in areas with a suitable climate, such as the south of
The prickly pear also grows widely on the islands of Malta, where it is enjoyed by the Maltese as a typical summer fruit (known as bajtar tax-xewk, literally "spiny figs"), as well as being used to make the popular liqueur known as
The prickly pear was introduced to Eritrea during the period of Italian colonisation between 1890 and 1940. It is locally known there as beles and is abundant during the late summer and early autumn (late July through September). The beles from the holy monastery of Debre Bizen is said to be particularly sweet and juicy.
In
Tungi is the local St. Helenian name for cactus pears. The plants (Indian fig opuntia) were originally brought to the island by the colonial ivory traders from East Africa in the 1850s. Tungi cactus now grows wild in the dry coastal regions of the island. Three principal cultivars of tungi grow on the island: the "English" with yellow fruit; the "Madeira" with large red fruit; and the small, firm "spiny red". Tungi also gives its name to a local Spirit distilled at The St Helena distillery at Alarm Forest, the most remote distillery in the world, made entirely from the opuntia cactus.
Cactus pear is being promoted and researched by
Folk medicine
In Mexican
Prior to modern medicine, Native Americans and Mexicans primarily used Opuntia as a coagulant for open wounds, using the pulp of the stem either by splitting the stem or scraping out the pulp.[37]
In one recent study, it was found that Opuntia aided in the prevention or slow down of diabetes, obesity, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and some cancers. The results of the group that was taking Opuntia showed a reduction in BMI, body composition, and waist circumference when compared to the placebo group.[38]
Other uses
In dye production
Cochineal is used primarily as a
The biggest producers of cochineal are Peru, the Canary Islands, and Chile. Current health concerns over artificial food additives have renewed the popularity of cochineal dyes, and the increased demand is making cultivation for insect farming an attractive opportunity in other regions, such as in Mexico, where cochineal production had declined again owing to the numerous natural enemies of the scale insect.[40]
Apart from cochineal, the red dye betanin can be extracted from some Opuntia plants themselves.[27] The Navajo have traditionally produced a reddish dye from the fruit of the prickly pear cactus, used in dyeing woolen yarns,[41] and where, after pulverizing the fruit, they are placed in a bath solution of cold water for two or three weeks.[42]
For animal fodder
Cactus is used as a fodder crop for animals in arid and dryland regions.[43] Some farmers prepare it with a fermentation produce, to remove the spines, and increase the digestibility.[44]
As a source of "vegan leather"
The thick skin of nopal cactus can be harvested as an environmentally-friendly leather replacement.[45]
For fuel
For bioplastic
Nopal juice can be used to produce bioplastic.[47]
Culture
The prickly pear cactus has been used for centuries both as a food source and a natural fence that keeps in livestock and marks the boundaries of family lands.[27] They are resilient and often grow back following removal.[27]
The 1975–1988 version of the emblem of Malta also featured a prickly pear, along with a traditional dgħajsa, a shovel and pitchfork, and the rising sun.[48]
The prickly pear is the official plant of Texas by legislation from 1995.[49]
The cactus lends its name to a song by British jazz/classical group Portico Quartet.[citation needed] The song "My Rival", on the album Gaucho by the American jazz-pop group Steely Dan begins with the words, "The wind was driving in my face/The smell of prickly pear."[50]
In the fall of 1961, Cuba had its troops plant a 13-kilometre (8 mi) barrier of Opuntia cactus along the northeastern section of the 28-kilometre (17 mi) fence surrounding the
Uruguayan-born footballer Bruno Fornaroli is nicknamed prickly pear due to his sometimes spiky hairstyles.[53]
Mexico
The coat of arms of Mexico depicts a Mexican golden
Israeli-born Jews
The cactus fig is called tzabar in
Palestinians
The prickly pear is also considered a national symbol of Palestine, having been grown across historic Palestine for years, traditionally being used to mark out land boundaries. The plant is seen by Palestinians as representing qualities of resilience and patience, as represented by the Palestinian proverb saber as-sabbar ("the patience of the cactus"). Its use as a emblem of Palestine has been traced to a painting produced by the artist Zulfa al-Sa'di in the 1930s. Its visibility was renewed by historical research carried out in the 1980s and 1990s on the Nakba, which revealed that many destroyed Palestinian villages susbequently saw regrowth of the cacti.[57] The plant's ability to thrive anywhere is also considered to reflect the experiences of the Palestinian diaspora.[58]
See also
- Sabra (comics)
- Sabra (person)
References
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- ^ Miller, Philip (1754). "Opuntia". The Gardener's Dictionary. Vol. v.2 (4th ed.). London: John & James Rivington. Retrieved 13 June 2014.
- ^ S2CID 10454390.
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- ^ "Opuntia Mill". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 16 October 2022.
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Janick, Jules (2001). ISSN 0730-2207.
- ^ "Sand prairie". Illinois Department of Natural Resources. 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2020.[permanent dead link]
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- Haseltonia. 9. Cactus and Succulent Society of America: 17–25. Archived from the original(PDF) on 25 March 2022.
- ^ "Kleskun Hill Natural Area".
- ^ "Opuntia galapageia Hensl.". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 3 June 2021.
- ^ Fitter, Fitter, and Hosking, Wildlife of the Galapagos (2000)
- ^ a b "Prickly pear eradication". The National Museum of Australia. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
- ^ a b c d Patterson, Ewen K. 1936. The World's First Insect Memorial. "The Review of the River Plate", December pp. 16–17
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- ^ "A Plague of Cactus". bioGraphic. 26 September 2019. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
- ^ a b J.A. Reyes-Agüero, J.R. Aguirre R., A. Valiente-Banuet (2006) Reproductive biology of Opuntia: A review. Journal of Arid Environments 64(4):549-585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005.06.018
- ^ Flora of the Southeastern United States
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- ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 28 March 2024.
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- ^ Midey, Connie (31 May 2005). "A magical plant". The Arizona Republic. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- ^ Jarman, Max (11 October 2005). "Hand crafted hooch: Prickly pear vodka from Flagstaff". The Arizona Republic. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- ^ Trevino, Miguel Trancozo. "The remarkable power of the prickly pear". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
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- ^ a b c
Louhaichi, Mounir; Hassan, Sawsan (2022). "Cactus Pear for Better Nutrition and Income". Home / Research Innovations /. ICARDA. ICARDA(The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas). Retrieved 4 December 2022.
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- ^ Mayes, V., Lacy, B. B., Ahasteen, J., & Chee, J. (2012). Nanise’: A Navajo herbal: One Hundred Plants from the Navajo Reservation. Chandler, AZ: Five Star Publications, Inc.
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- YouTube, April 2023, minutes 34:45–35:00.
- YouTube, 2016, minutes 19:55–20:29.
- ^ Lee Allen (15 January 2016). "Strategic fodder – cactus to the rescue as livestock feed". FarmProgress. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
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- ^ Derya Ozdemir (23 June 2020). "Creating Leather From Cactus to Save Animals and the Environment". Interesting Engineering. Archived from the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
- ISSN 1438-7697.
- ^ Liz Gyekye (5 June 2019). "BBC covers biodegradable bioplastics made from cactus juice". BioMarket Insights. Archived from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
- ^ Bonello, Giovanni (8 May 2011). "Malta's three national emblems since independence – what's behind them?". Times of Malta. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
- ^ "Texas State Symbols".
- ^ "Lyrics | Gaucho (1980) — My Rival". www.steelydan.com. Archived from the original on 4 November 2006. Retrieved 8 May 2010.
- ^ "Guantanamo Bay Naval Base and Ecological Crises". Trade and Environment Database. American University. Archived from the original on 27 March 2009. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
- ^ "Yankees Besieged". Time. 16 March 1962. Archived from the original on 29 December 2008.
- ^ Hill, Simon (11 December 2019). "Bruno Fornaroli proving a smart acquisition for Melbourne City". The Daily Telegraph. Sydney. Retrieved 19 October 2019.
- ISBN 978-0-520-21642-6. Retrieved 17 April 2018.
- ^ "Over here and over there". The Economist. 16 November 2006. Retrieved 16 October 2007.
- ^ Tamir, Tally (1999). "The Shadow of Foreignness: On the Paintings of Asim Abu-Shakra". Palestine-Israel Journal. 6 (1).
- ISSN 1547-3384. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
- ^ Khalil, Shahd Haj (8 September 2022). "Olive tree, za'atar, cactus: Palestine's symbolic plants and the meanings behind them". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
External links
- Media related to Opuntia at Wikimedia Commons
- Data related to Opuntia at Wikispecies
- Argiope argentata#Habitat and distribution
- Prickly Pear Control Oral History, Queensland, Australia