Vicia faba

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Vicia faba
Illustration of Vicia faba in flower
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Faboideae
Tribe: Fabeae
Genus: Vicia
Species:
V. faba
Binomial name
Vicia faba
Synonyms

Faba sativa Moench.

Vicia faba, commonly known as the broad bean, fava bean, or faba bean, is a species of

Pers., is a variety recognized as an accepted name.[1]
This legume is very common in Southern European, Northern European, East Asian, Latin American and North African cuisines.

Some people suffer from

G6PDD
. Otherwise the beans, with the outer seed coat removed, can be eaten raw or cooked. In young plants, the outer seed coat can be eaten, and in very young plants, the seed pod can be eaten.

Description

Worldwide broad bean production

Vicia faba is a stiffly erect, annual plant 0.5 to 1.8 metres (1 ft 8 in to 5 ft 11 in) tall, with two to four stems that are square in

pinnate with 2–7 leaflets, and glaucous (grey-green). Unlike most other vetches, the leaves do not have tendrils
for climbing over other vegetation.

The

The

acrocentric chromosomes and one pair is metacentric
.

History and cultivation

Broad beans in the pod

Broad beans have a long tradition of cultivation in Old World agriculture, being among the most ancient plants in cultivation and also among the easiest to grow. However, their wild ancestor has not been identified and their origin is unknown.[5] Charred faba bean remains were discovered at three adjacent Neolithic sites in Israel's Lower Galilee (Yiftah'el, Ahi'hud and Nahal Zippori). Based on the radiocarbon dating of these remains, scientists now believe that the domestication of the crop may have begun as early as 8,250 BCE.[6]

Broad beans are still often grown as a

clay soil. However, it prefers rich loams
.

In much of the English-speaking world, the name "broad bean" is used for the large-seeded cultivars grown for human food, while "horse bean" and "field bean" refer to cultivars with smaller, harder seeds that are more like the wild species and used for animal feed,[citation needed] though their stronger flavour is preferred in some human food recipes, such as falafel. The term "fava bean" (from Italian: fava for the bean) is used in some English-speaking countries such as Canada and the US, and "broad bean" is the most common name in Commonwealth countries like the UK, Australia and New Zealand.

Genome

The diploid genome of Vicia faba contains 13 GB of DNA, mostly obtained through amplification of retrotransposons and satellite repeats. The genome is one of the largest diploid field crops and contains a predicted 34,221 protein-coding genes.[7]

Pests and diseases

Many diseases appear at a higher rate in higher humidity. Therefore, cultivars being bred for higher density should be evaluated for disease problems. This can be mitigated by west–east rows for more sun drying effect.[8]

Disease tolerance is an important part of breeding V. faba.[8]

If transplanted instead of

direct seeded there is a lower risk of some diseases including Botrytis fabae (see §Botrytis fabae).[9]

Parasites

In mainland Europe and North Africa, the plant parasite Orobanche crenata (carnation-scented broomrape) can cause severe impacts on fields of broad beans, devastating their yields.

Fungal diseases

Botrytis fabae

Vicia faba is attacked by Botrytis fabae, the chocolate spot fungus, which can have a severe impact on yield. It is one of the worst diseases in fava beans, as it results in foliar damage, reduced

direct seeded there is a lower risk of Botrytis fabae outbreaks.[9]

Erysiphe cichoracearum

Sulfur fungicides are recommended in severe outbreak.[11]

Fusarium solani

This soil borne pathogen is mitigated by lower temperature, aeration, drainage, and sufficient nutrition. Symptoms include stunting, yellowing, necrotic basal leaves, and brown or red or black streak-shaped root lesions that grow together and may show above the soil as the disease progresses.[12]

Uromyces viciae-fabae var. viciae-fabae

Faba bean rust is a fungal pathogen commonly affecting broad bean plants at maturity, causing small orange dots with yellow halos on the leaves, which may merge to form an orange lawn on both leaf surfaces.

Sclerotinia stem rot

Both Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and S. trifoliorum are pathogens of interest. Lithourgidis et al. have done extensive work over the years, including in 2007 for S. t., 2005 for S. s., and 1989 regarding procedures for field testing with S. s.[13]

Bacterial diseases

Xanthomonas campestris and X. axonopodis

copper bactericides.[14]

Pseudomonas syringae

Pseudomonas syringae overwinters on residue. Uninfected seed, rotation, and removal of residue are preventative.[15]

Viral diseases

highly conserved nonetheless, suggesting it is maintained by necessity for infection of other Vicia.[16]

Insect pests

Aphis fabae

Broad bean plants are highly susceptible to early summer infestations of the black bean aphid, which can cover large sections of growing plants with infestations, typically starting at the tip of the plant. Severe infestations can significantly reduce yields, and can also cause discolouration of pods and reduction in their saleable values.

Aphis fabae is a major pest. May infest transplants. Reflective plastic mulch may be preventative. May be mechanically removed by high pressure water once plant is established. V. fabae is tolerant to low and medium degrees of infestation, so insecticide application is only required under high infestation.[17]

Fava beans, mature seeds, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy340 kcal (1,400 kJ)
58.29 g
Dietary fiber25 g
1.53 g
26.12 g
Niacin (B3)
18%
2.832 mg
Vitamin B6
22%
0.366 mg
Folate (B9)
106%
423 μg
Vitamin C
2%
1.4 mg
Vitamin K
8%
9 μg
Copper
92%
0.824 mg
Iron
37%
6.7 mg
Magnesium
46%
192 mg
Manganese
71%
1.626 mg
Phosphorus
34%
421 mg
Potassium
35%
1062 mg
Selenium
15%
8.2 μg
Sodium
1%
13 mg
Zinc
29%
3.14 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water11 g
Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[18] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[19]

Nutrition

Raw mature fava beans are 11% water, 58%

dietary minerals, such as manganese, phosphorus, magnesium, and iron (range of 52 to 77% DV), have considerable content. B vitamins have moderate to rich content (19 to 48% DV). Fava beans present the highest protein-to-carbohydrate ratio among other popular pulse crops, such as chickpea, pea and lentil. Moreover, their consumption is recommended along with cereals as both foods are complementary in supplying all essential amino acids.[20]

Health concerns

Toxicity

Beans generally contain phytohaemagglutinin, a lectin that occurs naturally in plants, animals, and humans.[21] Most of the relatively low toxin concentrations found in V. faba can be destroyed by boiling the beans for 10 minutes.[21]

Broad beans are rich in

levodopa, and should thus be avoided by those taking irreversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors to prevent a pressor response.[22][23]

Genetic predisposition

Sufferers of

hemolytic crisis.[24] A low-content vicine-convicine faba bean line was identified in the 1980s and the trait has been introduced into several modern cultivars. Low vicine-convicine faba beans are safe for consumption by G6PD-deficient individuals. As of 2019, a molecular marker may be used for marker-assisted breeding to reduce levels of vicine-convicine in fava beans.[25]

Culinary uses

Broad beans, shelled and steamed
Vicia faba beans around a US quarter
Fried broad beans as a snack

Broad beans are generally eaten while still young and tender, enabling harvesting to begin as early as the middle of spring for plants started under glass or overwintered in a protected location, but even the main crop sown in early spring will be ready from mid to late summer. Horse beans, left to mature fully, are usually harvested in the late autumn, and are then eaten as a

pulse. The immature pods are also cooked and eaten, and the young leaves of the plant can also be eaten, either raw or cooked as a pot herb
(like spinach).

Preparing broad beans involves first removing the beans from their pods, then steaming or boiling the beans, either whole or after parboiling them to loosen their exterior coating, which is then removed. The beans can be fried, causing the skin to split open, and then salted and/or spiced to produce a savory, crunchy snack.

Algeria

In south Algerian cuisine, broad beans are used to make

besarah and doubara. Doubara is popular in the city of Biskra
.

China

In the Sichuan cuisine of China, broad beans are combined with soybeans and chili peppers to produce a spicy fermented bean paste called doubanjiang.

Colombia

Fava beans (Colombia: Haba(s)) are a common food in most regions of Colombia, mostly in Bogota and Boyacá.

Ecuador

Steamed fava beans (known as habitas) with cheese are common in the cold-weather regions of Ecuador, especially around the Andes mountains and surroundings of Ambato.

Egypt

Fava beans (Egyptian Masri: fūl pronounced [fuːl]) are a common staple food in the Egyptian diet, eaten by rich and poor alike. Egyptians eat fava beans in various ways: they may be shelled and then dried, or bought dried and then cooked in water on very low heat for several hours. They are the primary ingredient in Egyptian-style falafel (unlike the Levantine style, where the primary ingredient is chickpeas). The most popular way of preparing them in Egypt is by taking the cooked and partially mashed beans and adding oil, salt, and cumin to them. The dish, known as ful medames, is traditionally eaten with bread (generally at breakfast) and is considered one of Egypt's national dishes.

Ethiopia

Broad beans (

Ethiopian Orthodox Church tradition called Tsome Filliseta, Tsome arbeå, Tsome Tahsas, and Tsome Hawaria (which are in August, end of February, April, mid-November, beginning of January, and June–July), two uncooked spicy vegetable dishes are made using broad beans. The first is hilibet, a thin, white paste of broad bean flour mixed with pieces of onion, green pepper, garlic, and other spices. The second is siljo, a fermented, sour, spicy thin yellow paste of broad bean flour. Both are served with other stews and injera
(a pancake-like bread) during lunch and dinner.

Baqella nifro (boiled broad beans) are eaten as a snack during some holidays and during a time of mourning. This tradition goes well into religious holidays, too. On the Thursday before Good Friday (in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church tradition, tselote hamus (the Prayer of Thursday)), people eat a different kind of nifro called gulban. Gulban is made of peeled, half beans collected and well-cooked with other grains such as wheat, peas, and chickpeas.

England

In England, broad beans are usually boiled.[26]

There is a project aimed at increasing broad bean consumption, particularly by use of broad bean flour in bread.[27]

Finland

Härkis

In

meat substitute called Härkis
.

Greece

The Greek word fáva (φάβα) does not refer to broad beans, but to the yellow split pea and also to another legume, Lathyrus clymenum. Broad beans are known instead as koukiá (Greek: κουκιά), and are eaten in a stew combined with artichokes, while they are still fresh in their pods. Dried broad beans are eaten boiled, sometimes combined with garlic sauce (skordalia).

In Crete, fresh broad beans are shelled and eaten as a companion to tsikoudia, the local alcoholic drink.

Favism is quite common in Greece because of malaria endemicity in previous centuries, and people afflicted by it do not eat broad beans.[citation needed
]

India

In India, fava beans are eaten in the Northeastern state of Manipur. They are locally known as hawai-amubi and are ingredients in the dish eromba.

Iran

Broad beans, or "Baghalee" (

Gilan) called baghalee polo (Persian
: باقالی پلو) which means "rice with broad beans". In Iran, broad beans are cooked, served with Golpar-origan and salt and sold on streets in the winter. This food is also available preserved in metal cans.

Iraq

Broad beans which are called Bagilla (باگله/باقله) in the Iraqi dialect of

Arab countries
and consists of mashed fava beans. Another famous Iraqi dish is Timmen Bagilla (تمن باگله), which is Arabic for 'broad bean rice'. This classic Iraqi dish consists of rice cooked with broad bean and dill.

Italy

In Sardinia, broad beans are traditionally cooked with lard, often substituted or paired with bacon or minced pork.

In Rome, fava beans are popular either cooked with

globe artichokes, as side dish together with lamb or kid, or raw with pecorino romano. Fave e pecorino is the traditional dish for 1 May picnic in Liguria, Tuscany, Marche, Umbria and Latium
.

In Sicily, maccu is a Sicilian soup prepared with fava beans as a primary ingredient.[28]

In Apulia, broad bean purée with wild chicory is a typical dish.

Japan

Broad beans, called Soramame (

Japanese: いかり豆) lit: "Anchor Bean", where the beans are roasted or fried.[29]

Luxembourg

Judd mat Gaardebounen, or smoked collar of pork with broad beans, is the national dish of Luxembourg.[30]

Malta

Broad beans are synonymous with Maltese kusksu.

They are a primary ingredient of the Maltese

appetizer
called bigilla where they are served as a pureé mixed with olive oil, lemon juice, garlic, parsley and mint. It is served with bread or crackers.

Mexico

In Mexico, fava beans are often eaten in a soup called sopa de habas, meaning "fava soup". They are also eaten fried, salted, and dried, as a snack, either by themselves or in combination with other salted, dried beans and nuts.

Morocco

In Morocco, fava beans are cooked, steamed or made into tabiṣart, a dip sold as a street food and commonly eaten in winter.[31]

Nepal

In Nepal, fava beans are called bakulla. They are eaten as a green vegetable when the pods are young, generally stir-fried with garlic. When dried, fava beans are eaten roasted, or mixed with other legumes, such as moong beans, chick peas, and peas, and called qwati. The mixture, soaked and germinated, is cooked as soup and consumed with rice or beaten rice on the occasion of Janai Purnima also known as Rakshya Bandhan, a festival celebrated by the Hindus. The dry and stir-fried version of qwati is called biraula. The qwati soup is believed to reinvigorate the body affected by monsoon paddy season.

Netherlands

In the Netherlands, they are traditionally eaten with fresh savory and some melted butter. The combination of the beans tossed with crispy fried bacon is also common. When rubbed, the velvet insides of the pods are a folk remedy against warts.

Peru

Fava beans (Peruvian Spanish: haba(s)) are eaten fresh or dried toasted, boiled, roasted, stewed or in soup. Habas are one of the essential ingredients of "Pachamanca" in the Andes of Peru, and are also an additive for "Panetela", which is a homemade remedy to keep your child fed and hydrated in cases of diarrhea or stomach infection and even for cholera treatment.

Peruvian dishes with fava beans include:

  • Aji de habas
  • Saltado de habas
  • El chupe de habas
  • Ajiaco de Papas y habas
  • Pachamanca
  • Guiso de habas
  • Shambar (heavy soup, traditional in Trujillo)

Portugal

"Favas guisadas à Portuguesa", a Portuguese fava stew

Fava beans (Portuguese: favas) are widely cultivated in Portugal and are very popular throughout the country. The most popular dish cooked with favas is "favada", a stew with onion and pork—depending on the region of the country the pork may be chorizo, bacon, pork shoulder, ribs or the mixture of many of these. In Alentejo a lot of coriander will be added in the end. Besides favada, fava beans may be served dry and fried as an appetiser.

Serbia

Broad bean aspic (Serbian: bobove pihtije) is a Serbian winter dish in which the pureed cooked beans are combined with crushed garlic and set in a mould, topped with ground paprika in hot oil.

Spain

Broad beans (Spanish: habas) are widely cultivated in Spain. Culinary uses vary among regions, but they can be used as the main pulse in a stew (Habas estofadas, michirones) or as an addition to other dishes (menestra, paella). In certain regions they can be eaten while unripe or fried and packaged as a snack.

Sudan

Fava beans are one of the most widely consumed foods in Sudan. For most Sudanese they form the main dish during breakfast time (fatoor), especially more so for city and urban dwellers. The beans are cooked by steadily boiling over a sustained period of time. Similar to Egypt, the cooked beans are mashed, and prepared by adding salt and pepper. For additional flavour, sesame oil is added along with a sprinkling of jibna ("feta" cheese) on top. The dish is then eaten with bread, sometimes mix all in one dish this called (fatta or boash).

Sweden

Green broad beans vegan salad in Sweden

Broad beans (Swedish: bondbönor, lit.'peasant beans'), which in Sweden were traditionally eaten as soaked brown, and boiled, dried broad beans fried in lard, were for a very long time popular to add to other foods as a filling side, specially with fried pork. The green, raw, and lightly boiled broad beans were used seasonally as a side green.

Syria

In Syria, broad beans are prepared in multiple ways for breakfast, lunch or dinner. Ful medames is the same as the Egyptian dish (it is not mashed though) but with the addition of tomato, parsley and onion and with olive oil. Another version of it includes the addition of

Christians in Syria
.

Turkey

In Turkey, broad beans are called bakla. This is also the name of a

zeytinyağlı dish made by simmering young and tender broad bean pods with chopped onions in olive oil. It is traditionally garnished with dill and served cool, together with yoghurt. Another dish is fava, a meze
prepared by pureeing beans with olive oil. Broad beans are also cooked with artichoke (Enginarlı İç Bakla) which is another zeytinyağlı dish.

Vietnam

In Southern Vietnam, fava beans (đậu móng heo) are usually stir fried with rice noodles, durians, shrimps, Thai basil, quail eggs and pig intestines in a dry stew called hủ tiếu lòng heo.

Other uses

Research

The first experimental demonstration that the pattern of replication of eukaryotic chromosomes follows the semiconservative DNA replication scheme proposed in 1953 by Watson and Crick[34] was reported in 1957 using V. faba root cells.[35]

Gallery

  • Broad bean flowers
    Broad bean flowers
  • Crimson flowered broad beans
    Crimson flowered broad beans
  • Seed of raw broad bean removed and set next to intact seed
    Seed of raw broad bean removed and set next to intact seed
  • Mature broad bean pods
    Mature broad bean pods
  • Aphis fabae (aphids) on broad bean
    Aphis fabae (aphids) on broad bean
  • Lasius niger attending an extrafloral nectary
    Lasius niger
    attending an extrafloral nectary

See also

References

  1. ^ "The Plant List: Vicia faba var. equina Pers". Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanic Garden. 2013. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  2. ^ "Core Historical Literature of Agriculture". Chla.library.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2013-04-30.
  3. ^ "Daughter of the Soil". Daughter of the Soil. Archived from the original on 2011-10-28. Retrieved 2013-04-30.
  4. ISSN 1034-6848
    .
  5. .
  6. .
  7. .
  8. ^ .
  9. ^ a b c Etemadi et al. 2019, p. 174
  10. ^ Etemadi et al. 2019, p. 174 §5.1
  11. ^ Etemadi et al. 2019, p. 174 §5.4
  12. ^ Etemadi et al. 2019, p. 175 §5.5
  13. .
  14. ^ Etemadi et al. 2019, p. 174 §5.2
  15. ^ Etemadi et al. 2019, p. 174 §5.3
  16. ^
    PMID 17220175
    .
  17. ^ Etemadi et al. 2019, p. 175 §6
  18. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  19. PMID 30844154.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  20. .
  21. ^ a b "Bad Bug Book (2012)" (PDF). Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook: Phytohaemagglutinin. United States Food and Drug Administration. p. 254. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
  22. ^ Daniel K. Hall-Flavin, M.D. "MAOIs and diet: Is it necessary to restrict tyramine?". Mayo Clinic.
  23. S2CID 6118722
    .
  24. .
  25. .
  26. ^ Fooks, Rose (3 July 2020). "How to cook broad beans". GoodtoKnow.
  27. ^ Hall, Rachel (18 January 2023). "Beans in toast: UK should switch to broad bean bread, say researchers". The Guardian.
  28. .
  29. ^ Itoh, Makiko, "Springtime beans aim for the sky", The Japan Times
  30. ^ Collar "Recipes from Luxembourg" Archived 2006-02-09 at the Wayback Machine, Luxembourg Tourist Office, London. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
  31. ^ "Morocco's best street food". cnn.com. 10 May 2013.
  32. ^ Kahn 2001, p. 5.
  33. .
  34. ^ WATSON JD, CRICK FH. The structure of DNA. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol. 1953;18:123-31. doi: 10.1101/sqb.1953.018.01.020. PMID 13168976
  35. ^ Taylor JH, Woods PS, Hughes WL. THE ORGANIZATION AND DUPLICATION OF CHROMOSOMES AS REVEALED BY AUTORADIOGRAPHIC STUDIES USING TRITIUM-LABELED THYMIDINE. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1957 Jan 15;43(1):122-8. doi: 10.1073/pnas.43.1.122. PMID 16589984; PMCID: PMC528395

External links

  • Duke, James A. (1983). "Vicia faba L." Handbook of Energy Crops. Purdue University.
  • Oplinger, E.S.; Putnam, D.H.; Doll, J.D.; Combs, S.M. (1989). "Fababean". Alternative Field Crops Manual. Purdue University.