Ailanthus altissima
Tree of heaven[1] | |
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Large specimen growing in a park in Germany | |
Scientific classification ![]() | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Sapindales |
Family: | Simaroubaceae |
Genus: | Ailanthus |
Species: | A. altissima
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Binomial name | |
Ailanthus altissima | |
Synonyms[2] | |
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Ailanthus altissima /eɪˈlænθəs ælˈtɪsɪmə/ ay-LAN-thəss al-TIH-sim-ə,[3] commonly known as tree of heaven, Ailanthus, varnish tree, copal tree, stinking sumac, Chinese sumac, paradise tree,[4] or in Chinese as chouchun (Chinese: 臭椿; pinyin: chòuchūn), is a deciduous tree in the family Simaroubaceae.[1] It is native to northeast and central China, and Taiwan. Unlike other members of the genus Ailanthus, it is found in temperate climates rather than the tropics.
The tree grows rapidly, and is capable of reaching heights of 15 metres (50 ft) in 25 years. While the species rarely lives more than 50 years, some specimens exceed 100 years of age.[5] Its suckering ability allows this tree to clone itself indefinitely.[6] It is considered a noxious weed and vigorous invasive species,[1] and one of the worst invasive plant species in Europe and North America.[7] In 21st-century North America, the invasiveness of the species has been compounded by its role in the life cycle of the also destructive and invasive spotted lanternfly.[8][9]
Description
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Ailanthus_altissima_drawing.png/200px-Ailanthus_altissima_drawing.png)
Ailanthus altissima is a medium-sized tree that reaches heights between 17 and 27 m (60 and 90 ft) with a diameter at breast height of about 1 m (3 ft).[10] The bark is smooth and light grey, often becoming somewhat rougher with light tan fissures as the tree ages. The twigs are stout, smooth to lightly pubescent, and reddish or chestnut in color. They have lenticels and heart-shaped leaf scars (i.e., a scar left on the twig after a leaf falls) with many bundle scars (i.e., small marks where the veins of the leaf once connected to the tree) around the edges. The buds are finely pubescent, dome-shaped, and partially hidden behind the petiole, though they are completely visible in the dormant season at the sinuses of the leaf scars.[11] The branches are light to dark gray in color, smooth, lustrous, and contain raised lenticels that become fissures with age. The ends of the branches become pendulous. All parts of the plant have a distinguishing strong odor that is often likened to peanuts, cashews,[4] or rotting cashews.[12]
The
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ailanthus_altissima1.jpg/150px-Ailanthus_altissima1.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Tree_of_Heaven_Re-sprouting.jpg/220px-Tree_of_Heaven_Re-sprouting.jpg)
The
History
In China, the tree of heaven has a long and rich history. It was mentioned in the oldest extant Chinese dictionary and listed in many Chinese medical texts for its purported curative ability. The roots, leaves, and bark are used in
The tree was first brought from China to Europe in the 1740s, and to the United States in 1784. It was one of the first trees brought to the West during a time when chinoiserie was dominating European arts, and was initially hailed as a beautiful garden specimen. However, enthusiasm soon waned after gardeners became familiar with its suckering habits and its foul odor. Despite this, it was used extensively as a street tree during much of the 19th century.
Outside Europe and the United States, the plant has been spread to many other areas beyond its native range, and is regarded internationally as a noxious weed.[1] In many countries, it is an invasive species due to its ability both to colonise disturbed areas quickly and to suppress competition with allelopathic chemicals.[1] The tree also resprouts vigorously when cut, making its eradication difficult and time-consuming. This has led to its being called "tree of hell" among gardeners and conservationists.[19]
Taxonomy
The first Western scientific descriptions of the tree of heaven were made shortly after it was introduced to Europe by French
Confusion in naming began when the tree was described by all three men with three different names. In Paris, Linnaeus gave the plant the name Rhus succedanea, while it was known commonly as grand vernis du Japon. In London, the specimens were named by Miller as Toxicodendron altissima, and in Busbridge, it was dubbed in the old classification system as Rhus Sinese foliis alatis. Records exist from the 1750s of disputes over the proper name between Philip Miller and John Ellis, curator of Webb's garden in Busbridge. Rather than the issue being resolved, more names soon appeared for the plant: Jakob Friedrich Ehrhart observed a specimen in Utrecht in 1782 and named it Rhus cacodendron.[11]
Light was shed on the taxonomic status of Ailanthus in 1788 when
The three
- Ailanthus altissima var. altissima, which is the type variety and is native to mainland China
- Ailanthus altissima var. tanakai, which is endemic to northern Taiwan highlands: It differs from the type in having yellowish bark, odd-pinnate leaves that are also shorter on average at 45 to 60 cm (18 to 24 in) long with only 13–25 scythe-like leaflets.[23][24][25] It is listed as endangered in the IUCN Red List of threatened species due to loss of habitat for building and industrial plantations.[26]
- Ailanthus altissima var. sutchuenensis, which differs in having red branchlets[23][24]
Distribution and habitat
Ailanthus altissima is native to northern and central China,
The tree prefers moist and loamy soils but is adaptable to a very wide range of soil conditions and
As an exotic plant
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Cracker_Castle%2C_residence_of_Jonathon_O._Pierce.jpg/250px-Cracker_Castle%2C_residence_of_Jonathon_O._Pierce.jpg)
The earliest introductions of A. altissima to countries outside of its native range were to the southern areas of Korea and to Japan. The tree may be native to these areas, but the tree is generally agreed to be a very early introduction.[30] Within China, it has also been naturalised beyond its native range in areas such as Qinghai, Ningxia, and Xinjiang.[24]
In 1784, not long after Jussieu had sent seeds to England, some were forwarded to the United States by
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Ailanthus-altissima-growing-as-weed-in-Australia.jpg/250px-Ailanthus-altissima-growing-as-weed-in-Australia.jpg)
Ailanthus has escaped cultivation in all areas where it was introduced, most extensively in the United States.[27] It has naturalised across much of Europe, including Germany,[31] Austria, Switzerland, the Czech Republic, the Pannonian region (i.e. southeastern Central Europe around the Danube River basin from Austria, Slovakia, and Hungary south to the Balkan ranges) and most countries of the Mediterranean Basin.[28] In Montenegro[32] and Albania[33][34] A. altissima is widespread in both rural and urban areas, and while in the first it was introduced as an ornamental plant, it very soon invaded native ecosystems with disastrous results and became an invasive species.[32] Ailanthus has also been introduced to Argentina,[27] Australia (where it is a declared weed in New South Wales and Victoria),[35] New Zealand (where it is listed under the National Pest Plant Accord and is classed an "unwanted organism"),[36] the Middle East, and in some countries in South Asia such as Pakistan.[37] In South Africa, it is listed as an invasive species that must be controlled, or removed and destroyed.[38]
In North America, A. altissima is present from Massachusetts in the east, west to southern Ontario, southwest to Iowa, south to Texas, and east to the north of Florida. In the west, it is found from New Mexico west to California and north to Washington.[10][27] In the east of its range, it grows most extensively in disturbed areas of cities, where it was long ago present as a planted street tree.[11][27] It also grows along roads and railways. For example, a 2003 study in North Carolina found the tree of heaven was present on 1.7% of all highway and railroad edges in the state, and had been expanding its range at the rate of 4.76% counties per year.[39] Similarly, another study conducted in southwestern Virginia determined that the tree of heaven is thriving along roughly 30% of the state's interstate highway system length or mileage.[40] It sometimes enters undisturbed areas as well, and competes with native plants.[27] In western North America, it is most common in mountainous areas around old dwellings and abandoned mining operations.[41][42] It is classified as a noxious or invasive plant on National Forest System lands and in many states[43] because its prolific seed production, high germination rate, and capacity to regrow from roots and root fragments enable A. altissima[44] to out-compete native species. For this reason, control measures on public lands[45] and private property[46] are advised where A. altissima has naturalised.
Ecology
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Ailanthus-altissima.jpg/250px-Ailanthus-altissima.jpg)
The tree of heaven is an opportunistic plant that thrives in full sun and disturbed areas. It spreads aggressively both by seeds and vegetatively by
Ailanthus has been used to re-vegetate areas where acid mine drainage has occurred and it has been shown to tolerate pH levels as low as 4.1 (approximately that of tomato juice). It can withstand very low phosphorus levels and high salinity levels. The drought tolerance of the tree is strong due to its root system's effective water storage.[27] It is frequently found in areas where few trees can survive. The roots are also aggressive enough to damage subterranean sewers and pipes.[11] Along highways, it often forms dense thickets in which few other tree species are present, largely due to the toxins it produces to prevent competition.[27] The roots are poisonous to people.[49]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Ailanthus_altissima_%28female%29.jpg/220px-Ailanthus_altissima_%28female%29.jpg)
Ailanthus produces an
The tree of heaven is a very rapidly growing tree, possibly the fastest-growing tree in North America.[43] Growth of 1 to 2 metres (3 to 7 ft) per year for the first four years is considered normal. Shade considerably hampers growth rates. Older trees, while growing much slower, still do so faster than other trees. Studies found that Californian trees grew faster than their East Coast counterparts, and American trees in general grew faster than Chinese ones.[43]
In northern Europe the tree of heaven was not considered naturalised in cities until after the
Several species of
In North America, the leaves of Ailanthus are sometimes attacked by Aculops ailanthii, a mite in the family Eriophyidae. Leaves infested by the mite begin to curl and become glossy, reducing their ability to function. Therefore, this species has been proposed as a possible biocontrol for Ailanthus in the Americas.[57] Research from September 2020 indicates a verticillium wilt, caused by Verticillium nonalfalfae, may function as a biological control for A. altissima,[58] with the weevil Eucryptorrhynchus brandti serving as a vector.[59]
Due to the tree of heaven's weedy habit, landowners and other organisations often resort to various methods of control to keep its populations in check. For example, the city of
Uses
In addition to its use as an ornamental plant, the tree of heaven is also used for its wood and as a host plant to feed
The pale yellow, close-grained, and satiny wood of Ailanthus has been used in cabinet work.[1][61] It is flexible and well-suited to the manufacture of kitchen steamers, which are important in Chinese cuisine for cooking mantou, pastries, and rice. Zhejiang in eastern China is most famous for producing these steamers.[11] The plant is also considered a good source of firewood across much of its range, as it is moderately hard and heavy, yet readily available.[62] The wood is also used to make charcoal for culinary purposes.[63] However, there are problems with using the wood as lumber; because the trees exhibit rapid growth for the first few years, the trunk has uneven texture between the inner and outer wood, which can cause the wood to twist or crack during drying. Techniques have been developed for drying the wood so as to prevent this cracking, allowing it to be commercially harvested. Although the live tree tends to have very flexible wood, the wood is quite hard once properly dried.[64]
Cultivation
Tree of heaven is a popular
For most landscaping conditions, it has no value as there are too many trees of superior quality; for impossible conditions this tree has a place; selection could be made for good habit, strong wood and better foliage which would make the tree more satisfactory; I once talked with an architect who tried to buy Ailanthus for use along polluted highways but could not find an adequate supply [...]
— Michael A. Dirr, Manual of Woody Landscape Plants[65]
In Europe, however, the tree is still used in the garden to some degree as its habit is generally not as invasive as it is in America. In the United Kingdom it is especially common in London squares, streets, and parks, though it is also frequently found in gardens of southern England and East Anglia. It becomes rare in the north, occurring only infrequently in southern Scotland. It is also rare in Ireland.[66] In Germany the tree is commonly planted in gardens.[31] The tree has furthermore become unpopular in cultivation in the west because it is short-lived and that the trunk soon becomes hollow, making trees more than two feet (60 cm) in diameter unstable in high winds.[61]
A few cultivars exist, but they are not often sold outside of China and probably not at all in North America:
- 'Hongye' – The name is Chinese and means "red leaves". As the name implies it has attractive vivid red foliage[67]
- 'Thousand Leaders'[67]
- 'Metro' – A male cultivar with a tighter crown than usual and a less weedy habit[68]
- 'Erythrocarpa' – The fruits are a striking red[68]
- 'Pendulifolia' – Leaves are much longer and hang elegantly[68]
Traditional medicine
Nearly every part of A. altissima has had various uses in
A tincture of the root bark was thought useful by American herbalists in the 19th century.[14] It contains phytochemicals, such as quassin and saponin, and ailanthone.[69] The plant may be mildly toxic.[1] The noxious odours have been associated with nausea and headaches, and with contact dermatitis reported in both humans and sheep, which developed weakness and paralysis. It contains a quinone irritant, 2,6-dimethoxybenzoquinone, as well as quassinoids.[69]
Culture
China
In addition to the tree of heaven's various uses, it has also been a part of Chinese culture for many centuries and has more recently attained a similar status in the west. Within the oldest extant Chinese dictionary, the Erya, written in the 3rd century BCE, the tree of heaven is mentioned second among a list of trees. It was mentioned again in a materia medica compiled during the Tang dynasty in 656 CE. Each work favoured a different character, however, and there is still some debate in the Chinese botanical community as to which character should be used. The current name, chouchun (Chinese: 臭椿; pinyin: chòuchūn), means "stinking tree", and is a relatively new appellation. People living near the lower Yellow River know it by the name chunshu (simplified Chinese: 椿树; traditional Chinese: 椿樹; pinyin: chūnshù), meaning "spring tree". The name stems from the fact that A. altissima is one of the last trees to come out of dormancy, and as such its leaves coming out would indicate that winter was truly over.[11]
In
United States
In
...they sang spirituals while white people slowed and stopped in the leafed darkness that was almost summer, to listen to those who were sure to die and him who was already dead singing about heaven and being tired; or perhaps in the interval between songs a rich, sourceless voice coming out of the high darkness where the ragged shadow of the heaven-tree which snooded the street lamp at the corner fretted and mourned: "Fo days mo! Den dey ghy stroy de bes ba'yton singer in nawth Mississippi!"[71] Upon the barred and slitted wall the splotched shadow of the heaven-tree shuddered and pulsed monstrously in scarce any wind; rich and sad, the singing fell behind.[72]
The 1943 novel A Tree Grows in Brooklyn by Betty Smith uses the tree of heaven as its central metaphor, using it as an analogy for the ability to thrive in a difficult environment. Then and since, Ailanthus has thrived in neglected urban areas.[20][73] She writes:
There's a tree that grows in Brooklyn. Some people call it the Tree of Heaven. No matter where its seed falls, it makes a tree which struggles to reach the sky. It grows in boarded up lots and out of neglected rubbish heaps. It grows up out of cellar gratings. It is the only tree that grows out of cement. It grows lushly...survives without sun, water, and seemingly earth. It would be considered beautiful except that there are too many of it.
— A Tree Grows in Brooklyn, Introduction
In the 2013 book Teardown: Memoir of a Vanishing City by Gordon Young, the tree is referenced in a description of the Carriage Town neighborhood in Flint, Michigan.
Festive Victorian-era homes in various stages of restoration battled for supremacy with boarded-up firetraps and overgrown lots landscaped with weeds, garbage, and "ghetto palms," a particularly hardy invasive species known more formally as Ailanthus altissima, or the tree of heaven, perhaps because only God can kill the things. Around the corner, business was brisk at a drug house where residents and customers alike weren't above casually taking a piss in the driveway.[74]
Ailanthus is also sometimes counter-nicknamed "tree from hell" due to its prolific
Until 26 March 2008, a 60-foot-tall (18 m) member of the species was a prominent "centerpiece" of the sculpture garden at the Noguchi Museum in the Astoria section in the borough of Queens in New York City. The tree had been spared by the sculptor Isamu Noguchi when in 1975 he bought the building which would become the museum and cleaned up its back lot. The tree was the only one he left in the yard, and the staff would eat lunch with Noguchi under it. "[I]n a sense, the sculpture garden was designed around the tree", said a former aide to Noguchi, Bonnie Rychlak, who later became the museum curator. By 2008, the old tree was found to be dying and in danger of crashing into the building, which was about to undergo a major renovation. The museum hired the Detroit Tree of Heaven Woodshop, an artists' collective, to use the wood to create benches, sculptures and other amenities in and around the building. The tree's rings were counted, revealing its age to be 75, and museum officials hoped it would regenerate from a sucker.[78]
Europe
Ingo Vetter, a German artist and professor of fine arts at
Explanatory notes
- ^ For a more thorough discussion, see the entry for Ailanthus altissima in the Wikimanual of Gardening at Wikibooks.
References
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- ^ "The Plant List".
- ^ The Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 1989.
- ^ a b c d e Miller, James Howard (2003). "Tree-of-Heaven". Nonnative invasive plants of southern forests: a field guide for identification and control. USDA Forest Service. Retrieved 29 November 2011. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-062
- doi:10.3390/f8070226.
- . Cite: Mais comme le fait remarquer Kowarik (2007), sa reproduction végétative le rend en quelque sorte très longévif, le premier individu introduit aux États-Unis en 1784 étant toujours présent grâce à ses drageons. (But as it is mentioned by Kowarik (2007), vegetative reproduction makes [A. altissima] very long-lived, in a way. The first individual planted in the United States in 1784 is still there thanks to its suckers.)
- ^ S2CID 8550327.
- ^ "Tree-of-heaven and the Spotted Lanternfly: Two Invasive Species to Watch". Pennsylvania State University. 28 August 2018.
- ^ "Invasive Species Spotlight: Tree-of-Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) and Spotted Lanternfly (Lycorma delicatula) | Brandywine Conservancy and Museum of Art".
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Miller, James H. (1990). "Ailanthus altissima". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Hardwoods. Silvics of North America. Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service (USFS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved 7 February 2002 – via Southern Research Station.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Hu, Shiu-ying (March 1979). "Ailanthus altissima" (PDF). Arnoldia. 39 (2): 29–50. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
- ^ Davies, Rob (17 September 2006). "The toxic Tree of Heaven threatens England's green and pleasant land". The Observer. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
- ^ "Tree-of-Heaven Ailanthus altissima". Division of Forestry. Ohio Division of Forestry. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
- ^ a b c Felter, Harvey Wickes; John Uri Lloyd (1898). "Ailanthus.—Ailanthus.". King's American Dispensatory (18th ed., 3rd rev. ed.). Henriette's Herbal Homepage. A 2-volume modern facsimileis published by Eclectic Medical Publications.
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- ^ a b c "Tree of heaven is a hellish invasive species. Could a fungus save the day?". Animals. 3 March 2021. Archived from the original on 3 March 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
- ^ a b c d Shah, Behula (Summer 1997). "The Checkered Career of Ailanthus altissima" (PDF). Arnoldia. 57 (3): 21–27. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
- ^ Swingle, Walter T. (1916). "The early European history and the botanical name of the tree of heaven, Ailanthus altissima". Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences. 6 (14): 490–498.
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- ISBN 978-957-9019-41-5. Archived from the originalon 11 March 2007. Retrieved 20 July 2006.
- ^ a b c Pan, F.J. (1998). "Ailanthus altissima var. tanakai". 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
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- ^ "City urges residents to report invasive Tree of heaven". City of Cape Town. 15 February 2016. Archived from the original on 22 February 2016. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
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- ^ Stipes, R.J. (1995). "A tree grows in Virginia [abstract]" (PDF). Virginia Journal of Science. 46 (2): 105. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 July 2011.
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- ^ a b c Howard, Janet L. (2010). "Ailanthus altissima". Fire Effects Information System (FEIS). US Department of Agriculture (USDA), Forest Service (USFS), Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Retrieved 24 June 2018.
- ^ 'Tree-of-heaven's prolific seed production adds to its invasive potential', 2 August 2017, Penn State News [1]
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- OCLC 557539727.
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- ^ a b "Penn State Scientists: Tree of Heaven Really Isn't" (Press release). Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 14 June 1999. Archived from the original on 22 February 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
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- ^ a b Collins, Lisa M. (10 December 2003). "Ghetto Palm". Metro Times Detroit. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
- ^ a b Wasacz, Walter (30 January 2007). "Big Ideas for Shrinking Cities". Model D. Archived from the original on 3 January 2010. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
- ^ Collins, Glen (27 March 2008). "A Tree That Survived a Sculptor's Chisel Is Chopped Down". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 March 2012.
External links
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/34px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png)
- U.S. Forest Service Fire Effects Information System: Ailanthus altissima
- National Invasive Species Information Center: species profile of Ailanthus altissima (Tree of Heaven), United States National Agricultural Library
- National Park Service, Plant Conservation Alliance, Alien Plant Working Group: Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) report
- Calflora Database: Ailanthus altissima (Tree of Heaven, Ailanthus)—introduced invasive species.
- Cal-IPC/California Invasive Plant Council: plant profile of Ailanthus altissima
- Ailanthus altissima in the CalPhotos photo database, University of California, Berkeley