Depleted uranium
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Pollution |
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Depleted uranium (DU; also referred to in the past as Q-metal, depletalloy or D-38) is
Depleted uranium is notable for the extremely high
Depleted uranium has lower mass fractions—up to three times less—of 235U and
Most depleted uranium arises as a
The use of DU in
The actual level of
History
Enriched uranium was first manufactured in the early 1940s when the
It is possible to design civilian power-generating
In the 1970s,
The US and NATO militaries used DU penetrator rounds in the
Production and availability
Natural uranium metal contains about 0.71% 235U, 99.28% 238U, and about 0.0054% 234U. The production of enriched uranium using isotope separation creates depleted uranium containing only 0.2% to 0.4% 235U. Because natural uranium begins with such a low percentage of 235U, enrichment produces large quantities of depleted uranium. For example, producing 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of 5% enriched uranium requires 11.8 kilograms (26 lb) of natural uranium, and leaves about 10.8 kilograms (24 lb) of depleted uranium having only 0.3% 235U.
The
Depleted uranium is further produced by recycling spent nuclear fuel,
DU from
Uranium hexafluoride
Most depleted uranium is stored as uranium hexafluoride, a toxic crystalline solid, (D)UF6, in steel rustproof and withering-proof cylinders in open air storage yards close to enrichment plants. Each cylinder holds up to 12.7 tonnes (14.0 short tons) of UF6. In the U.S. 560,000 tonnes (620,000 short tons) of depleted UF6 had accumulated by 1993. In 2008, 686,500 tonnes (756,700 short tons) in 57,122 storage cylinders were located near Portsmouth, Ohio; Oak Ridge, Tennessee; and Paducah, Kentucky.[26][27]
The storage of (D)UF6 presents environmental, health, and safety risks because of its chemical instability. When UF6 is exposed to water vapor in the air, it reacts with the moisture to produce UO2F2 (uranyl fluoride), a solid, and HF (hydrogen fluoride), a gas, both of which are highly soluble and toxic. The uranyl fluoride solid acts to plug the leak, limiting further escape of depleted UF6. Release of the hydrogen fluoride gas to the atmosphere is also slowed by the plug formation.[28]
Like any other uranium compound, it is radioactive, and precautions should be taken. It is also highly toxic. Uranyl fluoride is corrosive and harmful upon inhalation, ingestion, or skin absorption. Ingestion or inhalation may be fatal. Effects of exposure may be delayed.[29]
There have been several accidents involving uranium hexafluoride in the United States, including one in which 32 workers were exposed to a cloud of UF6 and its reaction products in 1986 at a Gore, Oklahoma, commercial uranium conversion facility. One person died; while a few workers with higher exposure experienced short-term kidney damage (e.g., protein in the urine), none of them showed lasting damage from the exposure to uranium.[30] The U.S. government has been converting depleted UF6 to solid uranium oxides for use or disposal.[31] Such disposal of the entire DUF6 inventory could cost anywhere from US$15 million to US$450 million.[32]
Country | Organization | Estimated DU stocks short tons )
|
Reported |
---|---|---|---|
United States | DOE | 480,000 (530,000) | 2002 |
Russia | FAEA
|
460,000 (510,000) | 1996 |
France | Areva NC
|
190,000 (210,000) | 2001 |
United Kingdom | BNFL
|
30,000 (33,000) | 2001 |
URENCO
|
16,000 (18,000) | 1999 | |
Japan | JNFL
|
10,000 (11,000) | 2001 |
China | CNNC
|
2,000 (2,200) | 2000 |
South Korea | KAERI
|
200 (220) | 2002 |
South Africa | NECSA
|
73 (80) | 2001 |
Singapore | DSO National Laboratories | 60 (66) | 2007 |
Total | 1,188,273 (1,309,847) | 2008 |
Military applications
Depleted uranium is very dense; at 19,050 kg/m3, it is 1.67 times as dense as lead, only slightly less dense than tungsten and gold, and only 16% less than osmium or iridium, which are the densest known substances under standard (i.e., Earth-surface) pressures. Consequently, a DU projectile of given mass has a smaller diameter than an equivalent lead projectile with the same kinetic energy, with less aerodynamic drag and deeper penetration because of a higher pressure at point of impact. DU projectiles are inherently incendiary because they become pyrophoric upon impact with the target.[34][35]
Armor plate
Because of its high density, depleted uranium can also be used in tank armor, sandwiched between sheets of steel armor plate. For instance, some late-production
Nuclear weapons
Depleted uranium can be used as a
Ammunition
Most military use of depleted uranium has been as
.The U.S. Marine Corps uses DU in the 25 mm PGU-20 round fired by the
Another use of depleted uranium is in
Depleted uranium is favored for the penetrator because it is self-sharpening
The DU content in various ammunition is 180 g in 20 mm projectiles, 200 g in 25 mm ones, 280 g in 30 mm, 3.5 kg in 105 mm, and 4.5 kg in 120 mm penetrators. DU was used during the mid-1990s in the U.S. to make
Only the US and the UK have acknowledged using DU weapons.[as of?][41] The Soviet Union and Russia have used DU weaponry since the 3BM-32 Vant, designed for the 125 mm tank cannons.[42] In 2018, TASS reported that Russia was arming some of its T-80 models with 3BM60 Svinets-2 DU rounds.[42] 782,414 DU rounds were fired during the 1991 war in Iraq, mostly by US forces.[43] In a three-week period of conflict in Iraq during 2003, it was estimated that between 1,000 and 2,000 tonnes of depleted uranium munitions were used.[44] More than 300,000 DU rounds were fired during the 2003 war, the vast majority by US troops.[43] The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) estimates that between 170 and 1,700 t of depleted uranium was dropped in Iraq by the US military since 2003, whereas the UK reported firing 1.9 t of depleted uranium weapons in said country.[45]
In March 2023, the UK government has confirmed that they are sending DU rounds to Ukraine along with its Challenger 2 tanks with its 120mm ammunition during the Russian invasion.[46]
Legal status in weapons
In 1996, the
The
The requested UN working paper was delivered in 2002
Annex II to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material 1980 (which became operative on 8 February 1997) classifies DU as a category II nuclear material. Storage and transport rules are set down for that category which indicates that DU is considered sufficiently "hot" and dangerous to warrant these protections. But since weapons containing DU are relatively new weapons no treaty exists yet to regulate, limit or prohibit its use. The legality or illegality of DU weapons must therefore be tested by recourse to the general rules governing the use of weapons under humanitarian and human rights law which have already been analysed in Part I of this paper, and more particularly at paragraph 35 which states that parties to Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 have an obligation to ascertain that new weapons do not violate the laws and customs of war or any other international law. As mentioned, the International Court of Justice considers this rule binding customary humanitarian law.
There is no specific treaty ban on the use of DU projectiles. There is a developing scientific debate and concern expressed regarding the impact of the use of such projectiles and it is possible that, in future, there will be a consensus view in international legal circles that use of such projectiles violate general principles of the law applicable to use of weapons in armed conflict. No such consensus exists at present.[54]
According to the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, depleted uranium does not meet the legal definitions of nuclear, radiological, toxin, chemical, poison or incendiary weapons, as far as DU ammunition is not designed nor intended to kill or wound by its chemical or radiological effects.[55]
Requests for a moratorium on military use
A number of anti-war activists specializing in international humanitarian law have questioned the legality of the continued use of depleted uranium weapons, highlighting that the effects may breach the principle of distinction (between civilians and military personnel).[56] Some states and the International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons, a coalition of more than 155 non-governmental organizations, have asked for a ban on the production and military use of depleted uranium weapons.[57]
The European Parliament has repeatedly passed resolutions requesting an immediate moratorium on the further use of depleted uranium ammunition,[58][59] but France and Britain – the only European states that are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council—have consistently rejected calls for a ban,[60] maintaining that its use continues to be legal, and that the health risks are unsubstantiated.[61]
In 2007, France, Britain, the Netherlands, and the Czech Republic voted against a United Nations General Assembly resolution to hold a debate in 2009 about the effects of the use of armaments and ammunitions containing depleted uranium. All other European Union nations voted in favour or abstained.[62] The ambassador from the Netherlands explained his negative vote as being due to the reference in the preamble to the resolution "to potential harmful effects of the use of depleted uranium munitions on human health and the environment [which] cannot, in our view, be supported by conclusive scientific studies conducted by relevant international organizations."[63] None of the other permanent members of the United Nations Security Council supported the resolution as China was absent for the vote, Russia abstained and the United States voted against the resolution.[62]
In September 2008, and in response to the 2007 General Assembly resolution, the
In December 2008, 141 states supported a resolution requesting that three UN agencies: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), WHO and IAEA update their research on the impact of uranium munitions by late 2010—to coincide with the General Assembly's 65th Session, four voted against, 34 abstained and 13 were absent[65] As before Britain and France voted against the resolution. All other European Union nations voted in favour or abstained: the Netherlands, which voted against a resolution in 2007, voted in favour, as did Finland and Norway, both of which had abstained in 2007, while the Czech Republic, which voted against the resolution in 2007, abstained. The two other states that voted against the resolution were Israel and the United States (both of which voted against in 2007), while as before China was absent for the vote, and Russia abstained.[65]
In June 2009, Belgium became the first country in the world to ban: "inert ammunition and armour that contains depleted uranium or any other industrially manufactured uranium."[66] The move followed a unanimous parliamentary vote on the issue on 22 March 2007. The text of the 2007 law allowed for two years to pass until it came into force.[67] In April 2009, the Belgian Senate voted unanimously to restrict investments by Belgian banks into the manufacturers of depleted uranium weapons.[68]
In September 2009, the Latin American Parliament passed a resolution calling for a regional moratorium on the use, production and procurement of uranium weapons. It also called on the Parlatino's members to work towards an international uranium weapons treaty.[69]
In November 2010 the Irish Senate passed a bill seeking to outlaw depleted uranium weapons,[70] but it lapsed before approval by the Dáil.[71]
In December 2010, 148 states supported a United Nations' General Assembly resolution calling for the states that use depleted uranium weapons in conflict to reveal where the weapons have been fired when asked to do so by the country upon whose territory they have been used.
In April 2011, the Congress of Costa Rica passed a law prohibiting uranium weapons in its territories, becoming the second country in the world to do so.[72]
In December 2012, 155 states supported a United Nations' General Assembly resolution that recalled that, because of the ongoing uncertainties over the long-term environmental impacts of depleted uranium identified by the United Nations Environment Programme, states should adopt a precautionary approach to its use.[73]
In December 2014, 150 states supported a United Nations' General Assembly resolution encouraging states to provide assistance to states affected by the use of depleted uranium weapons, in particular in identifying and managing contaminated sites and material.[74] In contrast to the previous biennial resolutions, Germany moved to an abstention from supporting to the resolutions.[75] Prior to the vote, in a report to the United Nations Secretary General requested by 2012's resolution published in June 2014, Iraq had called for a global treaty ban on depleted uranium weapons.[76]
Civilian applications
Depleted uranium has a very high density and is primarily used as shielding material for other radioactive material, and as
Radiation shielding
Depleted uranium is the best radiation shielding by weight, due to the high atomic weight of the uranium atoms; materials are more able to block radioactivity the higher their atomic weight, and uranium is one of the heaviest natural elements. Lead, the heaviest stable element, is the most common low-cost alternative, but a lead shield needs to be about three times as thick as a DU shield to provide the equivalent protection. Uranium also has by far a higher melting point 2,070 °F (1,130 °C), and its tensile strength is similar to that of steel.[77]
Coloring in consumer products
Consumer product uses have included incorporation into
Trim weights in aircraft
Aircraft that contain depleted uranium trim weights for stabilizing wings and control surfaces (such as the
US NRC general license
US Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations at 10 CFR 40.25 establish a general license for the use of depleted uranium contained in industrial products or devices for mass-volume applications. This general license allows anyone to possess or use depleted uranium for authorized purposes. Generally, a registration form is required, along with a commitment to not abandon the material. Agreement states may have similar, or more stringent, regulations.
Sailboat keel
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2022) |
Pen Duick VI, a boat designed by André Mauric and used for racing, was equipped with a keel of depleted uranium.[83] The benefit is that, because of the very high density of uranium, the keel could be thinner for a given weight, and so have less resistance than a normal keel. It was later replaced by a standard lead keel.[84]
Sampling calorimeters for detectors in high-energy particle physics
Depleted uranium has been used in a number of sampling calorimeters (such as in the D0[85] and ZEUS[86] detectors) because of its high density and natural radioactivity.
Health considerations
Normal functioning of the
In military conflicts involving DU munitions, the major concern is inhalation of DU particles in aerosols arising from the impacts of DU-enhanced projectiles with their targets.
The
As early as 1997, British Army doctors warned the Ministry of Defence that exposure to depleted uranium increased the risk of developing lung, lymph and brain cancer, and recommended a series of safety precautions.[98] According to a report issued summarizing the advice of the doctors, "Inhalation of insoluble uranium dioxide dust will lead to accumulation in the lungs with very slow clearance—if any. ... Although chemical toxicity is low, there may be localised radiation damage of the lung leading to cancer." The report warns that "All personnel ... should be aware that uranium dust inhalation carries a long-term risk ... [the dust] has been shown to increase the risks of developing lung, lymph and brain cancers."[98]
In 2003, the
Chemical toxicity
The chemical toxicity of depleted uranium is identical to that of natural uranium and about a million times greater in vivo than DU's radiological hazard,
Compilation of 2004 review[7] information regarding uranium toxicity | |||
---|---|---|---|
Body system | Human studies | Animal studies | In vitro |
Renal | Elevated levels of protein excretion, urinary catalase and diuresis | Damage to proximal convoluted tubules, necrotic cells cast from tubular epithelium, glomerular changes | No studies |
Brain/CNS | Decreased performance on neurocognitive tests | Acute cholinergic toxicity; Dose-dependent accumulation in cortex, midbrain, and vermis; Electrophysiological changes in hippocampus | No studies |
DNA | Increased reports of cancers | Increased DNA adducts, single strand breaks, and mutagenisis via uranium binding to DNA, with the increased potential for tumor formation | Binucleated cells with micronuclei, Inhibition of cell cycle kinetics and proliferation; Sister chromatid induction, tumorigenic phenotype |
Bone/muscle | No studies | Inhibition of periodontal bone formation; and alveolar wound healing | No studies |
Reproductive | Uranium miners have more first born female children | Moderate to severe focal tubular atrophy; vacuolization of Leydig cells | No studies |
Lungs/respiratory | No adverse health effects reported | Severe nasal congestion and hemorrhage, lung lesions and fibrosis, edema and swelling, lung cancer | No studies |
Gastrointestinal | Vomiting, diarrhea, albuminuria | n/a | n/a |
Liver | No effects seen at exposure dose | Fatty livers, focal necrosis | No studies |
Skin | No exposure assessment data available | Swollen vacuolated epidermal cells, damage to hair follicles and sebaceous glands | No studies |
Tissues surrounding embedded DU fragments | Elevated uranium urine concentrations | Elevated uranium urine concentrations, perturbations in biochemical and neuropsychological testing | No studies |
Immune system | Chronic fatigue, rash, ear and eye infections, hair and weight loss, cough. May be due to combined chemical exposure rather than DU alone | No studies | No studies |
Eyes | No studies | Conjunctivitis, irritation inflammation, edema, ulceration of conjunctival sacs | No studies |
Blood | No studies | Decrease in RBC count and hemoglobin concentration | No studies |
Cardiovascular | Myocarditis resulting from the uranium ingestion, which ended 6 months after ingestion | No effects | No studies |
Uranium is pyrophoric when finely divided.[107] It will corrode under the influence of air and water producing insoluble uranium(IV) and soluble uranium(VI) salts. Soluble uranium salts are toxic. Uranium slowly accumulates in several organs, such as the liver, spleen, and kidneys. The World Health Organization has established a daily "tolerated intake" of soluble uranium salts for the general public of 0.5 micrograms per kilogram (3.5×10−6 gr/lb) body weight, or 35 micrograms (0.00054 gr) for a 70 kilograms (150 lb) adult.
Early studies of depleted uranium aerosol exposure assumed that uranium combustion product particles would quickly settle out of the air[113] and thus could not affect populations more than a few kilometers from target areas,[9] and that such particles, if inhaled, would remain undissolved in the lung for a great length of time and thus could be detected in urine.[114] Violently burning uranium droplets produce a gaseous vapor comprising about half of the uranium in their original mass.[115] Uranyl ion contamination in uranium oxides has been detected in the residue of DU munitions fires.[116][117]
Approximately 90 micrograms (0.0014 gr) of natural uranium, on average, exist in the human body as a result of normal intake of water, food and air. Most is in the skeleton. The biochemistry of depleted uranium is the same as natural uranium.
Radiological hazards
The primary radiation danger from pure depleted uranium is due to
Available evidence suggests that the radiation risk is small relative to the chemical hazard.[101]
Surveying the veteran-related evidence pertaining to the Gulf War, a 2001 editorial in the
The Royal Society Working Group on the Health Hazards of Depleted Uranium Munitions (RSDUWG) concluded in 2002 that there were "very low" health risks associated with the use of depleted uranium, though it also ventured that, "[i]n extreme conditions and under worst-case assumptions" lung and kidney damage could occur, and that in "worst-case scenarios high local levels of uranium could occur in food or water that could have adverse effects on the kidney".[118][119] In 2003, the Royal Society issued another urgent call to investigate the actual health and environmental impact of depleted uranium.[notes 2] The same year, a cohort study of Gulf War veterans found no elevated risks of cancer generally, nor of any specific cancers in particular, though recommended follow up studies.[120]
According to the
Gulf War syndrome and soldier complaints
Since 1991, the year the
Simon Wessely praised the IOM's review, and noted that, despite its central conclusion that no novel syndrome existed, its other findings made it "equally clear that service in the Gulf war did aversely affect health in some personnel".[notes 7] Aside from the lack of baseline data to guide analysis of the veterans' postwar health, because no detailed health screening was carried out when the veterans entered service, another major stumbling block with some studies, like the thousand-veteran one, is that the subjects are self-selected, rather than a random sample, making general conclusions impossible.[124][122]
Increased rates of
A 2005 epidemiology review concluded: "In aggregate the human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in offspring of persons exposed to DU."[11] A 2001 study of 15,000 February 1991 U.S. Gulf War combat veterans and 15,000 control veterans found that the Gulf War veterans were 1.8 (fathers) to 2.8 (mothers) times as likely to have children with birth defects.[130] After examination of children's medical records two years later, the birth defect rate increased by more than 20%:
Dr. Kang found that male Gulf War veterans reported having infants with likely birth defects at twice the rate of non-veterans. Furthermore, female Gulf War veterans were almost three times more likely to report children with birth defects than their non-Gulf counterparts. The numbers changed somewhat with medical records verification. However, Dr. Kang and his colleagues concluded that the risk of birth defects in children of deployed male veterans still was about 2.2 times that of non-deployed veterans.[131]
In early 2004, the UK Pensions Appeal Tribunal Service attributed birth defect claims from a February 1991 Gulf War combat veteran to depleted uranium poisoning.
The U.S. Army has commissioned ongoing research into potential risks of depleted uranium and other projectile weapon materials like tungsten, which the U.S. Navy has used in place of DU since 1993. Studies by the U.S. Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute conclude that moderate exposures to either depleted uranium or uranium present a significant toxicological threat.[135]
In 2003, Professor Brian Spratt FRS, chairman of the
A 2008 review of all relevant articles appearing in the peer-reviewed journals on
Though a more comprehensive assessment is possible, a 2011 update on a cancer scare regarding Italian soldiers who had served in the Balkans found lower than expected incidence rates for all cancers, a finding "consistent with lacking evidence of an increased cancer incidence among troops of other countries deployed in the areas of Iraq, Bosnia, and Kosovo, where armour-penetrating depleted uranium shells have been used."[137]
One particular subgroup of veterans that may be at higher risk comprises those who have internally retained fragments of DU from shrapnel wounds. A laboratory study on rats produced by the Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute showed that, after a study period of 6 months, rats treated with depleted uranium coming from implanted pellets, comparable to the average levels in the urine of
Substantial amounts of uranium were accumulating in their
A 2021 report concluded that uranium from exploding munitions did not lead to Gulf War illness (GWI) in veterans deployed in the 1991 Persian Gulf War. The study found no differences in secretion of uranium isotopic ratios from those meeting the standard-case definitions of GWI and control veterans without GWI. The researchers say that the most likely remaining causes for GWI are widespread low-level exposure to sarin nerve gas released by the destruction of Iraqi chemical weapons storage facilities in January 1991. This was possibly compounded by the use of anti-nerve agent medications and the use of pesticides to prevent insect-borne diseases in coalition forces.[12]
Iraqi population
Since 2001, medical personnel working for the Iraqi state health service controlled by Saddam Hussein at the Basra hospital in southern Iraq have reported a sharp increase in the incidence of child leukemia and genetic malformation among babies born in the decade following the Gulf War. Iraqi doctors attributed these malformations to possible long-term effects of DU, an opinion that was echoed by several newspapers.[94][140][141][142] In 2004, Iraq had the highest mortality rate due to leukemia of any country.[143][144] In 2003, the Royal Society called for Western militaries to disclose where and how much DU they had used in Iraq so that rigorous, and hopefully conclusive, studies could be undertaken out in affected areas.[145] The International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons (ICBUW) likewise urged that an epidemiological study be made in the Basra region, as asked for by Iraqi doctors,[146] but no peer-reviewed study has yet been undertaken in Basra.
A medical survey, "
Four studies investigating links between the use of depleted uranium by Coalition forces during the Second Battle of Fallujah were conducted in 2012, one of which described the people of Fallujah as having "the highest rate of genetic damage in any population ever studied." In response to these studies, Ross Caputi, a former U.S. Marine who participated in the battle, wrote a Guardian article calling for the United States government to conduct its own study into the matter.[149]
The Balkans
In 2001, the World Health Organization reported that data from Kosovo was inconclusive and called for further studies.[150] That same year, governments of several European countries, particularly Italy, reported an increase in illnesses and developments of cancers among veterans that served in Balkan peacekeeping missions.[151]
A 2003 study by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in Bosnia and Herzegovina stated that low levels of contaminant were found in drinking water and air particulate at DU penetrator impact points. The levels were stated as not a cause for alarm. Yet, Pekka Haavisto, chairman of the UNEP DU projects stated, "The findings of this study stress again the importance of appropriate clean-up and civil protection measures in a post-conflict situation."[152]
A team of Italian scientists from the University of Siena reported in 2005 that, although DU was "clearly" added to the soil in the study area, "the phenomenon was very limited spatially and the total uranium concentrations fell within the natural range of the element in soils. Moreover, the absolute uranium concentrations indicate that there was no contamination of the earthworm species studied."[153]
In 2018, Serbia set up a commission of inquiry into the consequences of the use of depleted uranium during the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in southern Serbia and its link to the rise of diseases and tumors among citizens, particularly in young children born after 1999. Zoran Radovanovic, an epidemiologist and the chairman of the Serbian Medical Association's ethics committee, denied that there had been a rise in cancer cases in areas where bombings had taken place. He continued by saying that Serbians frequently worry about a cancer epidemic that does not exist.[154] NATO has repeatedly claimed that depleted uranium found in the ammunition used in the 1999 bombardments cannot be linked to adverse health effects.[155]
Okinawa, Japan
Between 1995 and 1996, U.S. Marine AV-8B Harrier jets accidentally fired more than 1,500 DU rounds at the Tori Shima gunnery range. The military did not notify the Japanese government until January 1997.[156]
Sardinia, Italy
Depleted uranium has been named as a possible contributing factor to a high incidence of birth defects and cancer near the Salto di Quirra weapons testing range on the Italian island of Sardinia.[157]
Contamination as a result of the Afghan War
The Canadian Uranium Medical Research Centre obtained urine samples from bombed civilian areas in Jalalabad that showed concentrations of 80 to 400 nanograms per litre (5.6×10−6 to 2.81×10−5 gr/imp gal) of undepleted uranium, far higher than the typical concentration in the British population of ≈5 nanograms per litre (3.5×10−7 gr/imp gal).[158]
Remscheid, Germany
On 8 December 1988, an
This was denied by the US military. However, 70 tons of top soil from the accident scene was removed and taken away to a depot.[159] Film material taken during the top-soil removal show radiation warning signs.[160] 120 residents and rescue workers reported skin diseases. Medical diagnosis concluded that these symptoms related to toxic irritative dermatitis.[161]
Studies indicating negligible effects
Studies in 2005 and earlier have concluded that DU ammunition has no measurable detrimental health effects.
A 1999
A 2001
A 2002 study from the Australian defense ministry concluded that "there has been no established increase in mortality or morbidity in workers exposed to uranium in uranium processing industries... studies of Gulf War veterans show that, in those who have retained fragments of depleted uranium following combat related injury, it has been possible to detect elevated urinary uranium levels, but no kidney toxicity or other adverse health effects related to depleted uranium after a decade of follow-up."[166] Pier Roberto Danesi, then-director of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Seibersdorf +Laboratory, stated in 2002 that "There is a consensus now that DU does not represent a health threat".[167]
The
A 2005 study by
Atmospheric contamination as a result of military actions
Elevated radiation levels consistent with very low level atmospheric depleted uranium contamination have been found in air samples taken by the UK Atomic Weapons Establishment at several monitoring sites in Britain. These elevated readings appear to coincide with
Other contamination cases
On 4 October 1992, an El Al Boeing 747-F cargo aircraft (Flight 1862) crashed into an apartment building in Amsterdam. Local residents and rescue workers complained of various unexplained health issues, which were being attributed to the release of hazardous materials during the crash and subsequent fires. Authorities conducted an epidemiological study in 2000 of those believed to be affected by the accident. The study concluded that there was no evidence to link depleted uranium (used as counterbalance weights on the elevators of the plane) to any of the reported health complaints.[81]
Safety and environmental issues
About 95% of the depleted uranium produced until now is stored as uranium hexafluoride, (D)UF6, in steel cylinders in open air yards close to enrichment plants. Each cylinder contains up to 12.7 tonnes (or 14 US tons) of UF6. In the U.S. alone, 560,000 tonnes of depleted UF6 had accumulated by 1993. In 2005, 686,500 tonnes in 57,122 storage cylinders were located near Portsmouth, Ohio, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and Paducah, Kentucky.[26][27]
The long-term storage of DUF6 presents environmental, health, and safety risks because of its chemical instability. When UF6 is exposed to moist air, it reacts with the water in the air and produces UO2F2 (uranyl fluoride) and HF (hydrogen fluoride), both of which are highly soluble and toxic. Storage cylinders must be regularly inspected for signs of corrosion and leaks. The estimated lifetime of the steel cylinders is measured in decades.[173]
There have been several accidents involving uranium hexafluoride in the United States.[30] The vulnerability of DUF6 storage cylinders to terrorist attack is apparently not the subject of public reports. However, the U.S. government has been converting DUF6 to solid uranium oxides for disposal.[31] Disposing of the whole DUF6 inventory could cost anywhere from 15 to 450 million dollars.[32]
A typical DUF6 cylinder storage yard | DUF6 cylinders: painted (left) and corroded (right) |
See also
- CANDU reactor, commercial power reactors that can use unenriched uranium fuel
- Environmental impact of war
- Traveling wave reactor – a reactor that uses depleted uranium for fuel
Notes
- ^ In natural uranium, about 49% of the radiation comes from 238U, 49% from 234U, and 2% from 235U. In depleted uranium the amounts of 235U and 234U are both reduced, but there is still much more radiation from the 234U than from the 235U.
- ^ a b Moszynski 2003. The article quotes Professor Brian Spratt of the Royal Society's DU working group: "It is highly unsatisfactory to deploy a large amount of material that is weakly radioactive and chemically toxic without knowing how much soldiers and civilians have been exposed to."
- ISBN 978-0-471-80553-3.
- ^ a b Mould 2001. Mould's suggestion was electron paramagnetic resonance dosimetry using tooth enamel. He also wrote that the US National Institute of Standards and Technology was able, using this method, to measure doses as low as 20 mSv, and that, if it were asked to, the NIST would be able to get involved, meaning at least one centre could help undertake a screening programme for veterans.
- ^ Greenberg et al. 2004, which found that perhaps a quarter of all UK troops would have been interested in undergoing DU-related monitoring, although "the desire for DU screening is more closely linked to current health status rather than plausible exposure to DU."
Confusingly, Moszynski 2003 reports that "testing is now available to all troops that served in Iraq", and does not say if this is testing à la Mould.
- ^ Charatan 2006. The quote is of Lynn Goldman, who chaired the IOM committee that carried out the review.
- ^ Charatan 2006. The quote is of Wessely himself.
References
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- ^ PMID 11159557.
Depleted uranium possesses only 60% of the radioactivity of natural uranium, having been 'depleted' of much of its most highly radioactive U234 and U235 isotopes.
- PMID 15080241.
By its very nature, DU contains only 50% to 60% of the radioactivity of naturally occurring uranium.
- ^ "Properties and Characteristics of DU" Archived 18 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine U.S. Office of the Secretary of Defense
- ^ S2CID 25156511.
- PMID 19776147.
- ^ (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^ "Biological Half Lives". Georgia State University, US.
- ^ S2CID 3244650.
- ^ Jamail, Dahr (16 March 2013). "Iraq's wars, a legacy of cancer". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
- ^ PMID 16124873.
- ^ a b "New Research Shows Gulf War Illness Not Caused by Depleted Uranium From Munitions". SciTechDaily. 18 February 2021. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
- S2CID 45404607.
- PMID 21888647.
- ^ Diehl, Peter (1999). "Depleted Uranium: A By-product of the Nuclear Chain". International Network of Engineers and Scientists Against Proliferation. Archived from the original on 13 January 2013.
- OCLC 864923078.
- ^ Hamilton, Douglas (25 January 2001). "NATO: 50 Countries See No Depleted Uranium Illness". Reuters Health Information. Archived from the original on 20 February 2001. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
- ^ Hastings, Deborah (12 August 2006). "Is an Armament Sickening U.S. Soldiers?". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 3 July 2014. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
- ^ Oakford, Samuel (14 February 2017). "The United States Used Depleted Uranium in Syria". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
- ^ "History of Depleted Uranium and What It Is Used For". Energy Solutions. Archived from the original on 21 July 2015. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
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Metallic DU is weakly radioactive and therefore contact with unbroken skin is an extremely low risk to health. However, when a DU round strikes an armoured target, it undergoes spontaneous partial combustion resulting in a fine aerosol of largely insoluble uranium oxides. Presence of this aerosol elevates the risk of potentially chemotoxic or radiotoxic exposure via inhalation or ingestion.
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Further reading
- Brown, Mark (2006). "Toxicological assessments of Gulf War veterans". PMID 16687269.
- Dorsey, Carrie D.; Engelhardt, Susan M.; Squibb, Katherine S.; McDiarmid, Melissa A. (2009). "Biological Monitoring for Depleted Uranium Exposure in U.S. Veterans". PMID 19590689.
- Fetter, Steve; von Hippel, Frank N. (1999). "The hazard posed by depleted uranium munitions" (PDF). Science & Global Security. 8 (2): 125–161. S2CID 122678543.
- Royal Society working group on the health hazards of depleted uranium munitions (2001). The health hazards of depleted uranium munitions: Part I (Report). London: The Royal Society.
- ——— (2002b). "The health effects of depleted uranium munitions: a summary". S2CID 250798819.
- Squibb, Katherine S.; McDiarmid, Melissa A. (2006). "Depleted uranium exposure and health effects in Gulf War veterans". PMID 16687268.
External links
Scientific bodies
- United Nations
- "Human rights and weapons of mass destruction, or with indiscriminate effect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering" (The UN 2002 report)
- Depleted Uranium and the IAEA
- Scientific reports
- ATSDR – Case Studies in Environmental Medicine (CSEM): Uranium Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
- "Depleted Uranium in Bosnia and Herzegovina – Postconflict Assessment" Archived 25 February 2012 at the UN Environment Programme
- "Radiological Conditions in Areas of Kuwait With Residues of Depleted Uranium" by International Atomic Energy Agency
- "Technical Report on Capacity-building for the Assessment of Depleted Uranium in Iraq" Archived 9 March 2012 at the UN Environment Programme
- "A Review of the Scientific Literature As It Pertains to Gulf War Illnesses" by RAND
- Depleted Uranium article from the Royal Society (archived)
- An Analysis of Uranium Dispersal and Health Effects Using a Gulf War Case Study by Sandia National Laboratories
- Depleted Uranium Human Health Fact Sheet by Argonne National Laboratory Environmental Assessment Division
- Depleted uranium (DU) normative value pilot study: levels of uranium in urine samples from the general population Archived 26 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine by AD Jones, BG Miller S Walker, J Anderson, AP Colvin, PA Hutchison, CA Soutar. IOM Research Report TM/05/03
- A normative study of levels of uranium in the urine of personnel in the British Forces Archived 26 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine by BG Miller, AP Colvin, PA Hutchison, H Tait, S Dempsey, D Lewis, CA Soutar. IOM Research Report TM/05/08
- Opinion on the environmental and health risks posed by depleted uranium by the Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks (SCHER)