Environmental movement
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The environmental movement (sometimes referred to as the ecology movement), is a social movement that aims to protect the natural world from harmful environmental practices in order to create
The environmental movement is an international movement, represented by a range of environmental organizations, from enterprises to grassroots and varies from country to country. Due to its large membership, varying and strong beliefs, and occasionally speculative nature, the environmental movement is not always united in its goals. At its broadest, the movement includes private citizens, professionals, religious devotees, politicians, scientists, nonprofit organizations, and individual advocates like former Wisconsin Senator Gaylord Nelson and Rachel Carson in the 20th century.
History
Early awareness
The origins of the environmental movement lay in response to increasing levels of
Early interest in the environment was a feature of the
Conservation movement
The modern conservation movement was first manifested in the forests of
The
Dietrich Brandis joined the British service in 1856 as superintendent of the teak forests of Pegu division in eastern Burma. During that time Burma's teak forests were controlled by militant Karen tribals. He introduced the "taungya" system,[11] in which Karen villagers provided labour for clearing, planting, and weeding teak plantations. Also, he formulated new forest legislation and helped establish research and training institutions. Brandis as well as founded the Imperial Forestry School at Dehradun.[12][13]
Formation of environmental protection societies
The late 19th century saw the formation of the first wildlife conservation societies. The zoologist
For most of the century from 1850 to 1950, however, the primary environmental cause was the mitigation of air pollution. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke.
Systematic and general efforts on behalf of the environment only began in the late 19th century; it grew out of the amenity movement in Britain in the 1870s, which was a reaction to
In 1893 Hill, Hunter and Rawnsley agreed to set up a national body to coordinate environmental conservation efforts across the country; the "
An early "Back-to-Nature" movement, which anticipated the romantic ideal of modern environmentalism, was advocated by intellectuals such as John Ruskin, William Morris, and Edward Carpenter, who were all against consumerism, pollution and other activities that were harmful to the natural world.[23] The movement was a reaction to the urban conditions of the industrial towns, where sanitation was awful, pollution levels intolerable and housing terribly cramped. Idealists championed the rural life as a mythical Utopia and advocated a return to it. John Ruskin argued that people should return to a "small piece of English ground, beautiful, peaceful, and fruitful. We will have no steam engines upon it ... we will have plenty of flowers and vegetables ... we will have some music and poetry; the children will learn to dance to it and sing it."[24]
Practical ventures in the establishment of small cooperative farms were even attempted and old rural traditions, without the "taint of manufacture or the canker of artificiality", were enthusiastically revived, including the Morris dance and the maypole.[25]
The movement in the
20th century
In the 20th century, environmental ideas continued to grow in popularity and recognition. Efforts were beginning to be made to save wildlife, particularly the American bison. The death of the last passenger pigeon as well as the endangerment of the American bison helped to focus the minds of conservationists and popularize their concerns. In 1916, the National Park Service was founded by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson.[27] Pioneers of the movement called for more efficient and professional management of natural resources. They fought for reform because they believed the destruction of forests, fertile soil, minerals, wildlife, and water resources would lead to the downfall of society.[28] The group that has been the most active in recent years is the climate movement.
"The conservation of natural resources is the fundamental problem. Unless we solve that problem, it will avail us little to solve all others".
Theodore Roosevelt (4 October 1907)[29]
The U.S. movement began to take off after World War II, as people began to recognize the costs of environmental negligence, disease, and the expansion of air and water pollution through the occurrence of several environmental disasters that occurred post-World War II. Aldo Leopold published A Sand County Almanac in 1949. He believed in a land ethic that recognized that maintaining the "beauty, integrity, and health of natural systems" as a moral and ethical imperative.
Another major literary force in the promotion of the environmental movement was Rachel Carson's 1962 book Silent Spring about declining bird populations due to DDT, an insecticide, pollutant, and man's attempts to control nature through the use of synthetic substances. Her core message for her readers was to identify the complex and fragile ecosystem and the threats facing the population. In 1958, Carson started to work on her last book, with an idea that nature needs human protection. Her influence was radioactive fallout, smog, food additives, and pesticide use. Carson's main focus was on pesticides, which led her to identify nature as fragile. She believed the use of technology dangerous to humans and other species.[30]
Both of these books helped bring the issues into the public eye[28] Rachel Carson's Silent Spring sold over two million copies[31] and is linked to a nationwide ban on DDT and the creation of the EPA.[32]
Beginning in 1969 and continuing into the 1970s, Illinois-based environmental activist James F. Phillips engaged in numerous covert anti-pollution campaigns using the pseudonym "the Fox." His activities included plugging illegal sewage outfall pipes and dumping toxic wastewater produced by a US Steel factory inside the company's Chicago corporate office. Phillips' "ecotage" campaigns attracted considerable media attention and subsequently inspired other direct action protests against environmental destruction.
The first Earth Day was celebrated on April 22, 1970.[33] Its founder, former Wisconsin Senator Gaylord Nelson, was inspired to create this day of environmental education and awareness after seeing the oil spill off the coast of Santa Barbara in 1969. Greenpeace was created in 1971 as an organization that believed that political advocacy and legislation were ineffective or inefficient solutions and supported non-violent action. 1980 saw the creation of Earth First!, a group with an ecocentric view of the world – believing in equality between the rights of humans to flourish, the rights of all other species to flourish and the rights of life-sustaining systems to flourish.[28]
In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, several events illustrated the magnitude of environmental damage caused by humans. In 1954, a
At the same time, emerging scientific research drew new attention to existing and hypothetical threats to the environment and humanity. Among them were
Meanwhile, technological accomplishments such as nuclear proliferation and photos of the Earth from outer space provided both new insights and new reasons for concern over Earth's seemingly small and unique place in the universe.
In 1972, the
By the mid-1970s anti-nuclear activism had moved beyond local protests and politics to gain a wider appeal and influence. Although it lacked a single co-ordinating organization the anti-nuclear movement's efforts gained a great deal of attention, especially in the United Kingdom and United States.[36] In the aftermath of the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, many mass demonstrations took place. The largest one was held in New York City in September 1979 and involved 200,000 people.[37][38][39]
Since the 1970s, public awareness,
21st century
In 2022, Global Witness reported that, in the preceding decade, more than 1,700 land and environmental defenders were killed, about one every two days.[42] Brazil, Colombia, Philippines, and Mexico were the deadliest countries.[42]
In 2023, the Environmental Protection Agency announced on Jan 10. that the first $100 million in federal environmental justice will open up to community organizations, local governments and other qualified applicants in the coming weeks.[43]
United States
Beginning in the conservation movement at the beginning of the 20th century, the contemporary environmental movement's roots can be traced back to
The United States passed many pieces of environmental legislation in the 1970s, such as the
Timeline of US environmental history
- 1832 – Hot Springs Reservation
- 1864 – Yosemite Valley
- 1872 – Yellowstone National Park
- 1892 – Sierra Club
- 1916 – National Park Service Organic Act
- 1916 – National Audubon Society[28]
- 1949 – UN Scientific Conference on the Conservation and Utilization of Resources
- 1961 – World Wildlife Foundation[45]
- 1964 – Land and Water Conservation Act
- 1964 – National Wilderness Preservation System
- 1968 – National Trails System Act
- 1968 – National Wild and Scenic Rivers System/Wild and Scenic Rivers Act[28]
- 1969 – National Environmental Policy Act
- 1970 – First Earth Day- 22 April
- 1970 – Clean Air Act
- 1970 – Environmental Protection Agency[45]
- 1971 – Greenpeace
- 1972 – Clean Water Act
- 1973 – Endangered Species Act
- 1980 – Earth First![28]
- 1992 – UN Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro[45]
- 1997 – Kyoto Protocol commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions[46]
- 2017 – First National CleanUp Day
- 2022 – Inflation Reduction Act[47]
Latin America
After the
Brazil
In 1992, Brazil came under scrutiny with the
Europe
In 1952 the
In the 1980s the green parties that were created a decade before began to have some political success. In 1986, there was a nuclear accident in
Asia
Middle East
The environmental movement is reaching the less developed world with different degrees of success. The Arab world, including the Middle East and North Africa, has different adaptations of the environmental movement. Countries on the Persian Gulf have high incomes and rely heavily on the large amount of energy resources in the area. Each country in the Arab world has varying combinations of low or high amounts of natural resources and low or high amounts of labor.
The
South Korea and Taiwan
South Korea and Taiwan experienced similar growth in industrialization from 1965 to 1990 with few environmental controls.[53] South Korea's Han River and Nakdong River were so polluted by unchecked dumping of industrial waste that they were close to being classified as biologically dead. Taiwan's formula for balanced growth was to prevent industrial concentration and encourage manufacturers to set up in the countryside. This led to 20% of the farmland being polluted by industrial waste and 30% of the rice grown on the island was contaminated with heavy metals. Both countries had spontaneous environmental movements drawing participants from different classes. Their demands were linked with issues of employment, occupational health, and agricultural crisis. They were also quite militant; the people learned that protesting can bring results. The polluting factories were forced to make immediate improvements to the conditions or pay compensation to victims. Some were even forced to shut down or move locations. The people were able to force the government to come out with new restrictive rules on toxins, industrial waste, and air pollution. All of these new regulations caused the migration of those polluting industries from Taiwan and South Korea to China and other countries in Southeast Asia with more relaxed environmental laws.
China
China's environmental movement is characterized by the rise of environmental NGOs, policy advocacy, spontaneous alliances, and protests that often only occur at the local level.[54] Environmental protests in China are increasingly expanding their scope of concerns, calling for broader participation "in the name of the public."[55]
The Chinese have realized the ability of riots and protests to have success and had led to an increase in disputes in China by 30% since 2005 to more than 50,000 events. Protests cover topics such as environmental issues, land loss, income, and political issues. They have also grown in size from about 10 people or fewer in the mid-1990s to 52 people per incident in 2004. China has more relaxed environmental laws than other countries in Asia, so many polluting factories have relocated to China, causing pollution in China.
Comparing the experience of China, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan reveals that the impact of environmental activism is heavily modified by domestic political context, particularly the level of integration of mass-based protests and policy advocacy NGOs. Hinted by the history of neighboring Japan and South Korea, the possible convergence of NGOs and anti-pollution protests will have significant implications for Chinese environmental politics in the coming years.[60]
India
Environmental and public health is an ongoing struggle within India. The first seed of an environmental movement in India was the foundation in 1964 of Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh, a labour cooperative started by
The most severe single event underpinning the movement was the Bhopal gas leakage on 3 December 1984.[61] 40 tons of methyl isocyanate was released, immediately killing 2,259 people and ultimately affecting 700,000 citizens.
India has a national campaign against
Bangladesh
Mithun Roy Chowdhury, President, Save Nature & Wildlife (SNW), Bangladesh, insisted that the people of Bangladesh raise their voice against Tipaimukh Dam, being constructed by the Government of India. He said the Tipaimukh Dam project will be another "death trap for Bangladesh like the Farakka Barrage," which would lead to an environmental disaster for 50 million people in the Meghna River basin. He said that this project will start desertification in Bangladesh.[63][64][65][66]
Bangladesh was ranked the most polluted country in the world due to defective automobiles, particularly diesel-powered vehicles, and hazardous gases from industry. The air is a hazard to Bangladesh's human health, ecology, and economic progress.[67]
Africa
South Africa
In 2022, a court in South Africa has confirmed the constitutional right of the country's citizens to an environment that isn't harmful to their health, which includes the right to clean air. The case is referred to "Deadly Air" case. The area includes one of South Africa's largest cities, Ekurhuleni, and a large portion of the Mpumalanga province.[68]
Oceania
Australia
Beginning as a conservation movement, the environmental movement in Australia was the first in the world to become a political movement. Australia is home to United Tasmania Group, the world's first green party.[69][70]
The environmental movement is represented by a wide range of groups sometimes called
New Zealand
Scope of the movement
Environmental science is the study of the interactions among the physical, chemical, and biological components of the environment.
- Ecology, or ecological science, is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how these properties are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment.
Primary focus points
The environmental movement is broad in scope and can include any topic related to the environment, conservation, and biology, as well as the preservation of landscapes, flora, and fauna for a variety of purposes and uses. See
- The conservation movement seeks to protect natural areas for sustainable consumption, as well as traditional (hunting, fishing, trapping) and spiritual use.
- Environmental conservation is the process in which one is involved in conserving the natural aspects of the environment. Whether through reforestation, recycling, or pollution control, environmental conservation sustains the natural quality of life.
- environment, or an early warning system for what may happen to humans
- Environmental justice is a movement that began in the U.S. in the 1980s and seeks an end to environmental racism and to prevent low-income and minority communities from an unbalanced exposure to highways, garbage dumps, and factories. The Environmental Justice movement seeks to link "social" and "ecological" environmental concerns, while at the same time preventing de facto racism, and classism. This makes it particularly adequate for the construction of labor-environmental alliances.[71]
- Gaia Theory, as well as Value of Earthand other interactions between humans, science, and responsibility.
- Bright green environmentalism is a currently popular sub-movement, which emphasizes the idea that through technology, good design and more thoughtful use of energy and resources, people can live responsible, sustainable lives while enjoying prosperity.
- lifestyle choice (light greens), and promoting reduction in human numbers and/or a relinquishment of technology(dark greens)
- Deep Ecologyis an ideological spinoff of the ecology movement that views the diversity and integrity of the planetary ecosystem, in and for itself, as its primary value.
- The anti-nuclear groups include Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, and the Nuclear Information and Resource Service.
- The pro-nuclear movement consists of people, including former opponents of nuclear energy, who calculate that the threat to humanity from climate change is far worse than any risk associated with nuclear energy.
Environmental law and theory
Property rights
Many environmental lawsuits question the legal rights of
Citizens' rights
One of the earliest lawsuits to establish that citizens may sue for environmental and
Nature's rights
Christopher D. Stone's 1972 essay, "Should trees have standing?" addressed the question of whether natural objects themselves should have legal rights. In the essay, Stone suggests that his argument is valid because many current rightsholders (women, children) were once seen as objects.
Environmental reactivism
Numerous criticisms and ethical ambiguities have led to growing concerns about technology, including the use of potentially harmful pesticides,[74] water additives like fluoride,[75] and the extremely dangerous ethanol-processing plants.[76]
When residents living near proposed developments organize opposition they are sometimes called "NIMBYS", short for "not in my back yard".[77]
Just Stop Oil, an environmentalist activist group, as well as and other activists are clarifying the issue of climate change and how it is impacting the way of life for humans.[78]
King Charles used events to engage with business and community leaders about environmental issues.[79]
Environmentalism today
Today, the sciences of ecology and environmental science, in addition to any aesthetic goals, provide the basis of unity to some of the serious environmentalists. As more information is gathered in scientific fields, more scientific issues like biodiversity, as opposed to mere aesthetics, are a concern to environmentalists. Conservation biology is a rapidly developing field.
In recent years, the environmental movement has increasingly focused on
Publicity and widespread organising of
In 2019, a survey found that climate breakdown is viewed as the most important issue facing the world in seven out of the eight countries surveyed.[82]
Many religious organizations and individual churches now have programs and activities dedicated to environmental issues.[83] The religious movement is often supported by interpretation of scriptures.[84] Most major religious groups are represented including Jewish, Islamic, Anglican, Orthodox, Evangelical, Zoroastrian, Christian and Catholic.[85]
Radical environmentalism
Radical environmentalism emerged from an ecocentrism-based frustration with the co-option of mainstream environmentalism. The radical environmental movement aspires to what scholar Christopher Manes calls "a new kind of environmental activism: iconoclastic, uncompromising, discontented with traditional conservation policy, at times illegal ..." Radical environmentalism presupposes a need to reconsider Western ideas of religion and philosophy (including capitalism, patriarchy[86] and globalization)[87] sometimes through "resacralising" and reconnecting with nature.[86][88] Greenpeace represents an organization with a radical approach, but has contributed in serious ways towards understanding of critical issues, and has a science-oriented core with radicalism as a means to media exposure. Groups like
Criticisms
Conservative critics of the movement characterize it as radical and misguided. Especially critics of the
Deforestation, air pollution, and endangered species have all been appearing as controversial issues in Western literature for hundreds, and in some cases, thousands of years.[91]
See also
- AI and Environment
- Anti-consumerism
- Chemical Leasing
- Carbon Neutrality
- Car-free movement
- Earth Science
- Earth Strike
- Ecofascism
- Ecological economics
- Ecological modernization
- Ecopsychology
- Ecosia
- Eco-socialism
- Environmental justice
- Environmental philosophy
- Environmental organizations
- Family planning
- Free-market environmentalism
- Green anarchism
- Green movement
- Green seniors
- Green syndicalism
- Holistic management
- National Cleanup Day
- Natural environment
- Political ecology
- Positive environmentalism
- Sexecology
- Social ecology
- Substitute good
- Sustainability
- Sustainability and systemic change resistance
- Technogaianism
- Timeline of environmental events
- Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
- List of women climate scientists and activists
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Further reading
- Brinkley, Douglas. Silent Spring Revolution: John F. Kennedy, Rachel Carson, Lyndon Johnson, Richard Nixon, and the Great Environmental Awakening (2022) excerpt
- Gottlieb, Robert. 1993. Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement. Island Press, ISBN 978-1559638326
- Guha, Ramachandra. 1999. Environmentalism: A Global History, London, Longman.
- Hawken, Paul. 2007. Blessed Unrest, Penguin.
- Martin, Laura. 2022. Wild by Design: The Rise of Ecological Restoration. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, ISBN 9780674979420
- Kamieniecki, Sheldon, ed. 1993. Environmental Politics in the International Arena: Movements, Parties, Organizations, and Policy, Albany: State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-1664-X
- Kline, Benjamin. First Along the River: A brief history of the U.S. environmental movement (4th ed. 2011)
- McCormick, John. 1995. The Global Environmental Movement, London: John Wiley.
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