Fennel
Fennel | |
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Fennel in flower | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Asterids |
Order: | Apiales |
Family: | Apiaceae |
Genus: | Foeniculum |
Species: | F. vulgare
|
Binomial name | |
Foeniculum vulgare | |
Synonyms[1] | |
Synonymy
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Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is a
It is a highly flavorful herb used in cooking and, along with the similar-tasting anise, is one of the primary ingredients of absinthe. Florence fennel or finocchio (UK: /fɪˈnɒkioʊ/, US: /-ˈnoʊk-/, Italian: [fiˈnɔkkjo]) is a selection with a swollen, bulb-like stem base that is used as a vegetable.
Description
Botany
Foeniculum vulgare is a
The
Chemistry
The
F. vulgare essential oil also has non-food uses. A 2016 study found the oil to have
Similar species
Some plants in the Apiaceae family are poisonous and often difficult to identify.
Dill, coriander, ajwain, and caraway are similar-looking herbs but shorter-growing than fennel, reaching only 40–60 cm (16–24 in). Dill has thread-like, feathery leaves and yellow flowers; coriander and caraway have white flowers and finely divided leaves (though not as fine as dill or fennel) and are also shorter-lived (being annual or biennial plants). The superficial similarity in appearance between these seeds may have led to a sharing of names and etymology, as in the case of meridian fennel, a term for caraway.
Giant fennel (Ferula communis) is a large, coarse plant with a pungent aroma, which grows wild in the Mediterranean region and is only occasionally grown in gardens elsewhere. Other species of the genus Ferula are also called giant fennel, but they are not culinary herbs.
In North America, fennel may be found growing in the same habitat and alongside natives osha (Ligusticum porteri) and Lomatium species, useful medicinal relatives in the parsley family.
Most Lomatium species have yellow flowers like fennel, but some[
Etymology
Fennel came into Old English from Old French fenoil which in turn came from Latin faeniculum, a diminutive of faenum, meaning "hay".
Cultivation
Fennel is widely cultivated, both in its native range and elsewhere, for its edible, strongly flavored leaves and fruits. Its
Florence fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Azoricum Group; syn. F. vulgare var. azoricum) is a cultivar group with inflated leaf bases which form a bulb-like structure. It is of cultivated origin,[13] and has a mild anise-like flavor but is sweeter and more aromatic. Florence fennel plants are smaller than the wild type.[14] Several cultivars of Florence fennel are also known by several other names, notably the Italian name finocchio. In North American supermarkets, it is often mislabeled as "anise."[15][16]
Foeniculum vulgare 'Purpureum' or 'Nigra', "bronze-leaved" fennel, is widely available as a decorative garden plant.[17]
Fennel has become
Country | Production (tonnes) |
---|---|
India | 584,000 |
China | 48,002 |
Bulgaria | 36,500 |
Iran | 32,771 |
Mexico | 29,251 |
Syria | 27,668 |
World | 970,404 |
Data combined with related spices – anise, star anise & coriander. Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[22]
|
Production
As grouped by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, production data for fennel are combined with similar spices – anise, star anise, and coriander.[22] In 2014, India produced 60% of the world output of fennel, with China and Bulgaria as leading secondary producers (table).
Uses
Fennel was prized by the ancient Greeks and Romans, who used it as medicine, food, and insect repellent. Fennel tea was believed to give courage to the warriors before battle. According to Greek mythology, Prometheus used a giant stalk of fennel to carry fire from Mount Olympus to Earth. Emperor Charlemagne required the cultivation of fennel on all imperial farms.[23]
Florence fennel is one of the three main herbs used in the preparation of absinthe, an alcoholic mixture which originated as a medicinal elixir in Europe and became, by the late 19th century, a popular alcoholic drink in France and other countries.[24] Fennel fruit is a common and traditional spice in flavored Scandinavian brännvin (a loosely defined group of distilled spirits, which include akvavit).[25][26] Fennel is also featured in the Chinese Materia Medica for its medicinal functions.[27]
Nutrition
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
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Energy | 1,443 kJ (345 kcal) |
52 g | |
Dietary fiber | 40 g |
14.9 g | |
Saturated | 0.5 g |
Monounsaturated | 9.9 g |
Polyunsaturated | 1.7 g |
15.8 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 38% 6.1 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 28% 0.47 mg |
Vitamin C | 23% 21 mg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 92% 1196 mg |
Iron | 103% 18.5 mg |
Magnesium | 92% 385 mg |
Manganese | 283% 6.5 mg |
Phosphorus | 39% 487 mg |
Potassium | 56% 1694 mg |
Sodium | 4% 88 mg |
Zinc | 36% 4 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 8.8 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[28] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[29] |
A raw fennel bulb is 90% water, 1% protein, 7% carbohydrates, and contains negligible fat.[30]
Dried fennel seeds are typically used as a spice in minute quantities. A reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz) of fennel seeds provides 1,440 kilojoules (345 kilocalories) of food energy and is a rich source (20% or more of the
Cuisine
The bulb, foliage, and fruits of the fennel plant are used in many of the culinary traditions of the world. The small flowers of wild fennel (known as fennel "pollen")[31] are the most potent form of fennel, but also the most expensive.[32] Dried fennel fruit is an aromatic, anise-flavored spice, brown or green when fresh, slowly turning a dull grey as the fruit ages. For cooking, green fruits are optimal.[12] The leaves are delicately flavored and similar in shape to dill. The bulb is a crisp vegetable that can be sautéed, stewed, braised, grilled, or eaten raw. Tender young leaves are used for garnishes, as a salad, to add flavor to salads, to flavor sauces to be served with puddings, and in soups and fish sauce.[33] Both the inflated leaf bases and the tender young shoots can be eaten like celery.[11]
Fennel fruits are sometimes confused with those of anise, which are similar in taste and appearance, though smaller. Fennel is also a flavoring in some natural toothpastes. The fruits are used in cookery and sweet desserts.[33]
Many cultures in India,
Fennel leaves are used in some parts of India as leafy green vegetables either by themselves or mixed with other vegetables, cooked to be served and consumed as part of a meal. In Syria and Lebanon, the young leaves are used to make a special kind of egg omelette (along with onions and flour) called ijjeh.
Many
Fennel fruits are the primary flavor component in Italian sausage. In Spain, the stems of the fennel plant are used in the preparation of pickled eggplants, berenjenas de Almagro. A herbal tea or tisane can also be made from fennel.
On account of its aromatic properties, fennel fruit forms one of the ingredients of the well-known compound liquorice powder. In the Indian subcontinent, fennel fruits are eaten raw, sometimes with a sweetener.
In Israel, fennel salad is made of chopped fennel bulbs flavored with salt, black pepper, lemon juice, parsley, olive oil, and sometimes sumac.
Culture
The Greek name for fennel is marathon (μάραθον) or marathos (μάραθος),[37] and the place of the famous battle of Marathon literally means a plain with fennel.[38] The word is first attested in Mycenaean Linear B form as ma-ra-tu-wo.[39] In Hesiod's Theogony, Prometheus steals the ember of fire from the gods in a hollow fennel stalk.[40]
As Old English finule, fennel is one of the nine plants invoked in the pagan Anglo-Saxon Nine Herbs Charm, recorded in the 10th century.[41]
In the 15th century, Portuguese settlers on Madeira noticed the abundance of wild fennel and used the Portuguese word funcho (fennel) and the suffix -al to form the name of a new town, Funchal.[42]
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's 1842 poem "The Goblet of Life" repeatedly refers to the plant and mentions its purported ability to strengthen eyesight:
Above the lower plants, it towers,
The Fennel with its yellow flowers;
And in an earlier age than ours
Was gifted with the wondrous powers
Lost vision to restore.
References
- ^ a b "Foeniculum vulgare Mill". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2023. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
- ^ "Classification for Kingdom Plantae Down to Genus Foeniculum Mill.". US Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2015. Archived from the original on 4 April 2021. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
- ^ "Plant Characteristics and Associations. Foeniculum vulgare". Calflora.org. Calflora. 1 April 2020. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
- ^ "Plant Finder. Foeniculum vulgare". Missouribotanicalgarden.org. Missouri Botanical Garden. Archived from the original on 31 December 2020. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-375-40233-3.
- ISBN 0-340-40170-2
- PMID 25162032.
- PMID 15969523.
- PMID 26471600.
- S2CID 103935770.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4930-1499-6.
- ^ a b Katzer's Spice Pages: Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) Archived 15 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Foeniculum vulgare". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
- ^ "Green Fennel Seeds". Regencyspices.hk. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 24 June 2014.
- ISBN 978-0-684-81870-2.
- ^ Ziedrich, Linda. The Joy of Pickling.
- ^ RHS Plant Finder 2008–2009, Dorling Kindersley, 2008, p280
- ^ "Species: Foeniculum vulgare (Aniseed)". Bie.ala.org.au. Archived from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
- ^ a b "IPCW Plant Report". California Invasive Plant Council. 16 October 2017. Archived from the original on 10 May 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
- ^ "Biota of North America Program 2014 county distribution map". Bonap.net. Archived from the original on 16 June 2015. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
- ^ "Foeniculum vulgare Calflora". Calflora.org. Archived from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
- ^ a b "Production in 2014, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2017. Archived from the original on 3 June 2019. Retrieved 10 November 2017.
- ^ Ken Adams; Dan Drost. "Fennel in the Garden". Digitalcommons.usu.edu. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
- ^ "Fennel (Marathos)". Polisherbgarden.com. Archived from the original on 24 February 2022. Retrieved 24 February 2022.
- ^ "Aalborg Taffel Akvavit". Diffordsguide.com. Archived from the original on 8 November 2017. Retrieved 8 November 2017.
- ^ "Aquavit: this winter's hottest spirit". The Daily Telegraph. 8 November 2016. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 8 November 2017.
- ^ "Making Chinese Medicine Series 03: Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare)". Purplecloudinstitute.com. 26 February 2021. Archived from the original on 8 March 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
- ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- )
- ^ "Fennel bulb, raw per 100 g". FoodData Central, US Department of Agriculture. 30 October 2020. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
- ^ "gourmet-organic-fennel-pollen". kandarian-organic-farms. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
- ^ "Fennel Pollen: Culinary Fairy Dust". The Wall Street Journal. 23 March 2012. Archived from the original on 1 March 2015. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
- ^ a b M. G. Kains (1912). American Agriculturist (ed.). Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation Harvesting Curing and Uses. Orange Judd Company. Archived from the original (English) on 13 April 2017.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-06-237523-0.
- ^ "What is Fennel Seeds, Saunf? Glossary | Uses, Benefits, Recipes". Tarladalal.com. Archived from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
- ^ Deepika Sahu (10 May 2012). "The power of five seeds". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 8 July 2012.
- Perseus Project.
- ^ Μαραθών in Liddell and Scott.
- ^ On tablets MY Ge 602, MY Ge 606 + fr., MY Ge 605 + 607 + frr. + 60Sa + 605b. "The Linear B word transliterated as ma-ra-tu-wo". Palaeolexicon. Word study tool of Ancient languages. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2014. Raymoure, K.A. "ma-ra-tu-wo". Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean. Archived from the original on 5 July 2019. Retrieved 19 March 2014. "MY 602 Ge (57)". Archived from the original on 25 July 2014. Retrieved 19 March 2014. "MY 606 Ge + fr. (57)". Archived from the original on 29 June 2017. Retrieved 19 March 2014. "MY 605 Ge + 607 + fr. [+] 60Sa + fr. [+] 605b + frr. (57)". DĀMOS: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo. University of Oslo. Archived from the original on 25 July 2014. Retrieved 19 March 2014.
- ^ Hesiod. "HESIOD, THE HOMERIC HYMNS, AND HOMERICA". Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on 7 January 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2019.
- ^ "Old English Plant Names". Archived from the original on 22 April 2014. Retrieved 16 January 2013.
- ^ Frutuoso, G.; de Azevedo, A.R. (1873), As Saudades da terra (in Portuguese), Typ. funchalense, p. 39
External links
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.