Philology and Middle-earth

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Elven-smith who contributed to Moria's construction.[1]

medieval period, had a major influence on J. R. R. Tolkien's fantasy world of Middle-earth. He was a professional philologist, and made use of his knowledge of medieval literature and language to create families of Elvish languages
and many details of the invented world.

Among his medieval sources for Middle-earth are

Beowulf, which he used in many places; his philological study of the Old English word Sigelwara, which may have inspired the Silmarils, Balrogs, and the Haradrim; and his research on an inscription at the temple of Nodens, which seems to have led to Celebrimbor Silver-hand, maker of the Rings of Power, to Dwarves, and to the One Ring
itself.

His use of his philological understanding of language in the construction of his Middle-earth

a complete mythology
.

Context

From his schooldays,

Houghton Mifflin that this was meant to imply that his work was "all of a piece, and fundamentally linguistic in inspiration. ... The invention of languages is the foundation. The 'stories' were made rather to provide a world for the languages than the reverse. To me a name comes first and the story follows."[T 1]

The Tolkien scholar Verlyn Flieger writes that Tolkien's "profession as philologist and his vocation as writer of fantasy/theology overlapped and mutually supported one another",[3] in other words that he "did not keep his knowledge in compartments; his scholarly expertise informs his creative work."[4] This expertise was founded, in her view, on the belief that one knows a text only by "properly understanding [its] words, their literal meaning and their historical development."[3] She states that he skilfully exploited the language styles of different characters to situate them geographically as well as in their specific culture and their psychological makeup, commenting that, "One can imagine a seventy-page essay centuries hence on 'Tolkien as a Philologist: The Lord of the Rings'".[4]

Medieval sources

Crist I

Main article: Eärendil and Elwing § The beginning of Tolkien's mythology
  • Ēala ēarendel engla beorhtast / ofer middangeard monnum sended, "Hail Earendel, brightest of angels, over Middle-earth to men sent" (second half of top line, first half of second line) - part of the poem Crist I in the Exeter Book, folio 9v, top[5]
    Ēala ēarendel engla beorhtast / ofer middangeard monnum sended,
    "Hail Earendel, brightest of angels, over Middle-earth to men sent"
    (second half of top line, first half of second line) - part of the poem Crist I in the Exeter Book, folio 9v, top[5]
SilmarilMiddle-earthEärendilEärendilLightcommons:File:Crist I's influence on legendarium.svg
Imagemap with clickable links. Crist I's influence on Tolkien's legendarium
It has been called "the catalyst for Tolkien's mythology".[6][7]

Tolkien began his mythology with the 1914 poem The Voyage of Earendel the Evening Star, inspired by the Old English poem Crist I.[6][8] Around 1915, he had the idea that his constructed language Quenya was to be spoken by Elves whom the character Eärendil meets during his journeys.[9] From there, he wrote the Lay of Earendel, telling of Earendel and his voyages and how his ship turned into the morning star.[10][11][5][12] These lines from Crist I also gave Tolkien the term Middle-earth (translating Old English Middangeard). Accordingly, the medievalists Stuart D. Lee and Elizabeth Solopova state that Crist I was "the catalyst for Tolkien's mythology".[6][7][8]

Beowulf

Orthanc and the tree-giant Ents who lived nearby.[14]
Main article:
Beowulf in Middle-earth

Tolkien was an expert on Old English literature, especially the epic poem Beowulf, and made many uses of it in The Lord of the Rings. For example, Beowulf's list of creatures, eotenas ond ylfe ond orcnéas, "Ettens [giants] and Elves and demon-corpses", contributed to his creation of some of the races of beings in Middle-earth.[13]

He derived the

Orthanc (orþanc) from the same phrase, reinterpreted as "Orthanc, the Ents' fortress".[14]

The word orþanc occurs again in Beowulf in the phrase searonet seowed, smiþes orþancum, "[a

Riders of Rohan. They called their land the Mark, a version of the Mercia where he lived, in Mercian dialect *Marc.[17]

In the case of Tolkien's description of the floor of Meduseld, the hall of King Théoden of Rohan in The Lord of the Rings, the folklorist and Tolkien scholar Dimitra Fimi suggests that it is possible to trace Tolkien's thought back to an actual medieval floor. In a 1926 review of an article about placenames and archaeology, Tolkien wrote that the phrase on fāgne flōr, "on the bright-patterned floor", occurs in Beowulf, line 725. He commented that it "might be guessed to mean paved or even tessellated floor."[T 2] Tolkien, describing himself rhetorically as "the philologist", notes that the Oxfordshire village of Fawler was in 1205 named Fauflor;[a] that he would wonder if that meant there was a Roman villa nearby; and that "the archaeologist" would reply that there was indeed one "with a tessellated pavement" near there, the large and luxurious North Leigh Roman Villa.[T 2][19][20] Fimi writes that the Beowulf lines are definitely echoed in Tolkien's description of the hall of King Théoden of Rohan in The Lord of the Rings, and "perhaps even this image of the real floor" too.[20]

Dimitra Fimi's analysis of the origins of the King of Rohan's hall floor in The Two Towers[20]
Beowulf, lines 723–725 Tolkien's prose translation[T 3] "The King of the Golden Hall"[T 4] A "bright-patterned floor" at
a village named after it[T 2][19]

onbraéd þá bealo-hýdig,       þá hé gebolgen wæs,
recedes múðan.       Raðe æfter þon
on fágne flór       féond treddode,

He [Grendel] wrenched then wide, baleful with raging heart, the gaping entrance of the house; then swift on the bright-patterned floor the demon paced. The hall was long and wide and filled with shadows and half lights; mighty pillars upheld its lofty roof… As their eyes changed, the travellers perceived that the floor was paved with stones of many hues; branching runes and strange devices intertwined beneath their feet.

Sigelwara

SilmarilBalrogHaradSigelwara LandSól (Germanic mythology)HearthSowilōsealcommons:File:Tolkien's Sigelwara Etymologies.svg
Imagemap with clickable links. Tolkien's Sigelwara etymologies, leading to three strands in his writings on Middle-earth.[T 5][21]
Further information: Sigelwara Land

Several Middle-earth concepts may have come from the Old English word Sigelwara, used in the

sowilō (ᛋ), the latter from Latin sigillum, a seal.[21]

He decided that the second element was *hearwa, possibly related to Old English heorð, "

Silmarils.[23] Further, the Anglo-Saxon mention of Aethiopians suggested to Tolkien the Haradrim, a dark southern race of men.[b][T 6]

Nodens

CelebrimborRings of PowerDwarf (Middle-earth)Nuada AirgetlámNodensLydney Parkcommons:File:Nodens Temple influence on Tolkien.svg
Imagemap with clickable links. Apparent influence of archaeological and philological work at Nodens' Temple on Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium[1]
Further information: Nodens and Ring of Silvianus

In 1928, a 4th-century pagan cult temple was excavated at Lydney Park, Gloucestershire.[25] Tolkien was asked to conduct a philological investigation of a Latin inscription there, translating it as: "For the god Nodens. Silvianus has lost a ring and has donated one-half [its worth] to Nodens. Among those who are called Senicianus do not allow health until he brings it to the temple of Nodens."[26] An old name for the place was "Dwarf's Hill", and in 1932, Tolkien traced Nodens to the Irish hero Nuada Airgetlám, "Nuada of the Silver-Hand".[T 7]

Shippey thought this "a pivotal influence" on Tolkien's Middle-earth, combining as it did a god-hero, a ring, dwarves, and a silver hand.

Eregion".[1][27] The Lydney curator Sylvia Jones said that Tolkien was "surely influenced" by the site.[28] The scholar of English literature John M. Bowers notes that the name of the Elven-smith Celebrimbor is the Sindarin for "Silver Hand", and that, "Because the place was known locally as Dwarf's Hill and honeycombed with abandoned mines, it naturally suggested itself as background for the Lonely Mountain and the Mines of Moria."[29]

A pervasive influence

Tolkien was constantly inspired in his writing of fiction by his professional work in philology. The Tolkien scholar

Earendel. His creation took many forms.[30]

Inventing languages and people to speak them

Elvish Languages mapped to the sundering of the Elves: Tolkien worked out an intricate philological mapping of the variations in his invented language families to the history of the Elvish peoples and the complex migrations that he created to make use of the languages. Shown is the word for "Elves" in each of the languages.[T 8]
Locations are diagrammatic.
Further information:
Elvish languages (Middle-earth)

Tolkien took a special pleasure, described in his 1931 essay "A Secret Vice",[T 9] in inventing languages.[31] He invested a large amount of time and energy creating philologically-structured language families, especially the Elvish languages of Quenya and Sindarin, both of which appear in The Lord of the Rings.[32] Thus, the word for "Elves" in one language variant, Common Eldarin, was kwendi, its consonants realistically and systematically modified into quendi in Quenya, penni in Silvan, pendi in Telerin, and penidh in Sindarin.[32][T 8]

The existence of all these languages motivated his creation of a mythology; the languages needed people to speak them, and they in turn needed history and geography, wars and migrations.[32] In The Silmarillion, these include the sundering of the Elves, their repeated splintering into separate groups neatly mirroring the fragmentation of Quenya into languages and dialects.[33] Tolkien stated as much in his foreword to the Second Edition of The Lord of the Rings: "I wished first to complete and set in order the mythology and legends of the Elder Days ... for my own satisfaction ... it was primarily linguistic in inspiration and was begun in order to provide the necessary background of 'history' for Elvish tongues".[T 10]

Inventing a mythology

Further information:
A mythology for England
Tolkien was unable to emulate Elias Lönnrot, who travelled Finland recording oral folklore.[34] 1912 sketch for a mural, Lönnrot and the Rune Singers, by Akseli Gallen-Kallela

The scholar of folklore Tommy Kuusela writes that Tolkien's intention to create

asterix [conjectured wordform], the root and the recreated word become, in Tolkien's mind, the seeds for a narrative."[38] At the most, he could suppose that some of the material in his legendarium "already existed; it was something originating in a collective English imagination, and he was in that sense not inventing things from scratch."[38] The international success of The Lord of the Rings, however, made Tolkien's mythology, complete with its "elves, dwarfs, wizards, dragons, shape-shifters, talking trees and great heroes",[38] not specifically English, "but rather cross-cultural."[38]

With so little information about what English mythology might have been, Tolkien was forced to combine scraps from whatever sources he could find. An instance of this is his reconstruction of Elves, based on clues from such Old English sources as had survived, combined with clues from further afield, such as Norse mythology.[13]

Tom Shippey's analysis of Tolkien's philological reconstruction of Elves[13]
Medieval source Philological clue Idea
Beowulf eotenas ond ylfe ond orcnéas: "ettens, elves, and devil-corpses" Elves are strong and dangerous.
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight The Green Knight is an aluisch mon: "elvish man, uncanny creature" Elves have strange powers.
Magical spell ofscoten: "elf-shot" (causing sickness, to be treated with the spell) Elves are archers.
Icelandic and
Old English usage		 frið sem álfkona: "fair as an elf-woman"
ælfscýne: "elf-beautiful"		 Elves are beautiful.
Old English usage wuduælfen, wæterælfen, sǣælfen: "dryads, water-elves, naiads" Elves are strongly connected to nature.
Scandinavian ballad Elvehøj Mortal visitors to Elfland are in danger, as time seems different there. Time is distorted in Elfland.
Norse mythology Dökkálfar, Ljósálfar: "light and dark elves" The Elvish peoples are sundered into multiple groups.[39]

From words to story

According to Shippey, Tolkien invented parts of Middle-earth to resolve the linguistic puzzle he had accidentally created by using different European languages for those of peoples in his legendarium.[40]

Tolkien devoted enormous effort to placenames, for example making those in

Bree contain Brittonic (Celtic) language elements.[40] Shippey comments that even though many of these names do not enter the book's plot, they contribute a feeling of reality and depth, giving "Middle-earth that air of solidity and extent both in space and time which its successors [in fantasy literature] so conspicuously lack."[41] Tolkien wrote in one of his letters that his work was "largely an essay in linguistic aesthetic".[T 12]

He made use of several European languages, ancient and modern, including Old English for the language of Rohan,

Rohirric into Old English; therefore, too, the dwarf-names written in Old Norse must have been translated from Khuzdul into Old Norse. Thus the linguistic geography of Middle-earth grew from Tolkien's purely philological or linguistic explorations.[40]

Tolkien's philological liking for lost words expressed itself, too, in his use of what Shippey calls some "strikingly odd words" in The Lord of the Rings. One of these is "dwimmerlaik", from Old English dwimor,[c] which Shippey describes as a hazy concept blending magic and deceit, with "suggest[ions of] veiling, illusion, shape-shifting," and lac, meaning sport or play.[43] Éowyn uses the word to defy the Witch-king of Angmar as they fight to the death in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields: "Begone, foul dwimmerlaik, Lord of carrion!"[43] Shippey reconstructs Tolkien's philological thinking behind his use of the word. He notes that Éowyn's brother Éomer had earlier described Saruman as "a wizard both cunning and dwimmer-crafty, having many guises," giving a gloss on the strange word.[43] Shippey comments that this usefully makes Éomer sound "archaic but not entirely unfamiliar".[43] Another man from Rohan, the traitor Gríma Wormtongue, uses the related word "Dwimordene" for the magical realm of the Elves, glossing it as he speaks with the phrase "webs of deceit were ever woven in Dwimordene."[43] Thus "dwimor/dwimmer" is seen to suggest both magic and deception. Finally, Tolkien uses the name "Dwimorberg", directly translating it into modern English as "the Haunted Mountain".[43] So, Shippey writes, by the time Éowyn shouts "dwimmerlaik", the attentive reader should have been able to pick up the various clues as to its meaning.[43]

Tom Shippey's analysis of Éowyn's use of "dwimmerlaik" in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields[43]
Possible meaning,
describing the Witch-king of Angmar		 Origins
Old or Middle English		 Translation
Creature of sorcery Layamon's Brut speaks of being killed
"oðer wid dweomerlace oðer mid steles bite"		 'either with sorcery or with the bite of steel'
Sport of nightmare The 14th century alliterative poem Cleanness mentions
"deuinores of demorlaykes þat dremes cowþe rede"		 'diviners of nightmares who tell what dreams mean'
Doubtfully real, seemingly non-existent,
"as if he too is a creature of deceit and altered vision"		 Old English
gedwimer		 'illusion'

Inventing a tradition of philology

Further information: Tolkien's frame stories

Tolkien described a tradition of philological study of Elvish languages within his legendarium. Elven philologists are indicated by the Quenya term Lambengolmor, "loremasters". In Quenya, lambe means "spoken language" or "verbal communication".[T 13] Tolkien wrote:

The older stages of Quenya were, and doubtless still are, known to the loremasters of the Eldar. It appears from these notices that besides certain ancient songs and compilations of lore that were orally preserved, there existed also some books and many ancient inscriptions.[T 14]

Philologists among the Lambengolmor were Rúmil, who invented the Sarati, the first Elvish script, Fëanor, who developed this script into the Tengwar which became widespread in Middle-earth, and Pengolodh of Gondolin, who wrote the Lhammas or "The Account of Tongues".[T 13]

In The Lord of the Rings, a human philologist appears in the shape of the

athelas, displays his learning by reciting its names in different languages, and repeats a rhyme the people used to say about it, but neither has it in store nor sees the need to have it there. Shippey comments that this unsuccessful figure illustrates "in a rather prophetic way" how real knowledge can dwindle until it is no longer felt to be at all useful, as happened to Tolkien's discipline of philology.[44]

The wizard

Book of Mazarbul. She adds that the wizard's struggle with the password written above the Western door to Moria shows both the trap of going too far into philology, and the importance of doing the philology correctly. The inscription could be read as the cryptic "Friend, speak [the unstated password], and enter"; it is only after much delay that Gandalf realises it actually means "Say 'Friend' [Quenya: mellon] and enter", i.e. that the password is stated directly in the plain text, and the learned wizard has overthought the question.[45]

Philological humour

Further information: Smaug § Old English spell
spell wid smeogan wyrme, "against a penetrating worm",[47]
forms the end of line 3.

Tolkien stated, in a joking letter that he was surprised to see published in

dwarves.[51]

True language, true names

Further information: True name
Tom Bombadil gives the hobbits' ponies their true names

Hey! now! Come hoy now! Whither do you wander?
Up, down, near or far, here, there or yonder?
Sharp-ears, Wise-nose, Swish-tail and Bumpkin,
White-socks my little lad, and old Fatty Lumpkin!

[Tom Bombadil] reappeared, hat first, over the brow of the hill, and behind him came in an obedient line six ponies: their own five and one more. The last was plainly old Fatty Lumpkin: he was larger, stronger, fatter (and older) than their own ponies. Merry, to whom the others belonged, had not, in fact, given them any such names, but they answered to the new names that Tom had given them for the rest of their lives.[T 16]

Shippey writes that The Lord of the Rings embodies Tolkien's belief that "the word authenticates the thing",[52] or to look at it another way, that "fantasy is not entirely made up."[53] Tolkien, as a professional philologist, had a deep understanding of language and etymology, the origins of words. He found a resonance with the ancient myth of the "true language", "isomorphic with reality": in that language, each word names a thing and each thing has a true name, and using that name gives the speaker power over that thing.[54][55] This is seen directly in the character Tom Bombadil, who can name anything, and that name then becomes that thing's name ever after; Shippey notes that this happens with the names he gives to the hobbits' ponies.[54]

This belief, Shippey states, animated Tolkien's insistence on what he considered to be the ancient, traditional, and genuine forms of words. A modern English word like loaf, deriving directly from Old English hlāf,[56] has its plural form in 'v', "loaves", whereas a newcomer like "proof", not from Old English, rightly has its plural the new way, "proofs".[52] So, Tolkien reasoned, the proper plurals of "dwarf" and "elf" must be "dwarves" and "elves", not as the dictionary and the printers typesetting The Lord of the Rings would have them, "dwarfs" and elfs". The same went for forms like "dwarvish" and "elvish", which he saw as strong and old, and avoiding any hint of dainty little "elfin" flower-fairies, which he saw as weak and recent.[52] Tolkien insisted on the expensive reversion of all such typographical "corrections" at the galley proof stage.[52]

Notes

  1. ^ In turn, Fauflor was from Old English fāg flōr.[18][19]
  2. ^ In drafts of The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien toyed with names such as Harwan and Sunharrowland for Harad; Christopher Tolkien notes that these are connected to his father's Sigelwara Land.[T 6]
  3. ^ Clark Hall defines this as "phantom, ghost, illusion, error".[42]
  4. MS. Harley 585, ff. 136b, 137a (11th century) (Lacnunga).[47]

References

Primary

  1. Houghton Mifflin
    , 30 June 1955
  2. ^ a b c Tolkien, J. R. R. (1926). "[Review]: Introduction to the Survey of Place-Names". The Year's Work in English Studies (5): 64.
  3. ^ Tolkien 2014, p. 33
  4. ^ Tolkien 1954, book 3, ch. 6 "The King of the Golden Hall"
  5. ^ a b c d J. R. R. Tolkien, "Sigelwara Land" Medium Aevum Vol. 1, No. 3. December 1932 and Medium Aevum Vol. 3, No. 2. June 1934.
  6. ^ a b Tolkien 1989, ch. 25 p. 435, and p. 439 note 4 (comments by Christopher Tolkien)
  7. ^ J. R. R. Tolkien, "The Name Nodens", Appendix to "Report on the excavation of the prehistoric, Roman and post-Roman site in Lydney Park, Gloucestershire", Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London, 1932; also in Tolkien Studies: An Annual Scholarly Review, Vol. 4, 2007
  8. ^ a b Tolkien 1994, "Quendi and Eldar"
  9. ISBN 978-0-2611-0263-7
    .
  10. ^ Tolkien 1954a, Foreword to the Second Edition
  11. Collins
    ), late 1951
  12. ^ Carpenter 2023, #165 to Houghton Mifflin, June 1955
  13. ^ a b Tolkien 1987, "The Lhammas"
  14. Parma Eldalamberon
     (19): 68.
  15. ^ Carpenter 2023, #25 to the editor of The Observer, 16 January 1938
  16. ^ Tolkien 1954a, book 1, ch. 8, "Fog on the Barrow-downs"

Secondary

  1. ^ a b c d Anger 2013, pp. 563–564
  2. ^ Garth 2003, p. 16.
  3. ^ a b Flieger 1983, p. 5.
  4. ^ a b Flieger 1983, pp. 6–7.
  5. ^ a b Carpenter 2023, #297, draft, to Mr Rang, August 1967
  6. ^ a b c Lee & Solopova 2005, p. 256.
  7. ^ a b Garth 2003, p. 44.
  8. ^ a b Carpenter 2000, p. 79.
  9. ^ Solopova 2009, p. 75.
  10. ^ Carpenter 2000, p. 84.
  11. ^ Tolkien 1984b, pp. 266–269
  12. ^ Tolkien 1984b, p. 266
  13. ^ a b c d Shippey 2005, pp. 66–74.
  14. ^ a b Shippey 2001, p. 88.
  15. ^ Shippey 2005, p. 149.
  16. ^ Shippey 2001, pp. 169–170.
  17. ^ Shippey 2001, pp. 90–97.
  18. ISBN 978-0-19-283131-6
    .
  19. ^ a b c Shippey 2005, pp. 37–38.
  20. ^ a b c Fimi 2016
  21. ^ a b Shippey 2005, pp. 48–49.
  22. ^ "Junius 11 "Exodus" ll. 68-88". The Medieval & Classical Literature Library. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
  23. ^ a b Shippey 2005, pp. 49, 54, 63.
  24. ^ Flieger 1983, pp. 7–9.
  25. ^ Shippey 2005, pp. 40–41.
  26. ^ "RIB 306. Curse upon Senicianus". Scott Vanderbilt, Roman Inscriptions of Britain website. Retrieved 17 February 2020. funded by the European Research Council via the LatinNow project
  27. ^ Armstrong, Helen (May 1997). "And Have an Eye to That Dwarf". Amon Hen: The Bulletin of the Tolkien Society (145): 13–14.
  28. ^ "Tolkien's tales from Lydney Park". BBC. 24 September 2014. Retrieved 24 February 2021.
  29. ^ Bowers 2019, pp. 131–132.
  30. ^ Rateliff 2006, p. 82.
  31. ^ Smith 2013, pp. 600–601.
  32. ^ a b c Hostetter 2006.
  33. ^ Flieger 1983, pp. 88–131.
  34. ^ "Elias Lönnrot". The Kalevala Society. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
  35. ^ Chance 1980, Title page and passim.
  36. ^ Jackson 2015, pp. 22–23.
  37. ^ Shippey 2005, p. 112.
  38. ^ a b c d e f g Kuusela 2014, pp. 25–36.
  39. ^ Shippey 2005, pp. 282–284.
  40. ^ a b c Shippey 2005, pp. 129–133.
  41. ^ a b Shippey 2005, pp. 117–118.
  42. ^ Clark Hall 2002, p. 91.
  43. ^ a b c d e f g h Shippey 2006, pp. 34–36.
  44. ^ Shippey 2006, p. 29.
  45. ^ Branchaw 2015.
  46. ^ a b c d Shippey 2005, pp. 102–104.
  47. ^ a b c Storms 1948, p. 303.
  48. ^ Bosworth & Northcote 2018, smúgan.
  49. ^ Clark Hall 2002, p. 427.
  50. ^ Clark Hall 2002, p. 311.
  51. ^ Shippey, Tom (13 September 2002). "Tolkien and Iceland: The Philology of Envy". Archived from the original on 14 October 2007.
  52. ^ a b c d Shippey 2005, pp. 63–66.
  53. ^ Shippey 2005, pp. 55–56.
  54. ^ a b Shippey 2005, pp. 115, 121.
  55. ^ Zimmer 2004, p. 53.
  56. ^ Clark Hall 2002, p. 185.

Sources

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