Modernity
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Modernity, a topic in the
Depending on the field, modernity may refer to different time periods or qualities. In historiography, the 16th to 18th centuries are usually described as
As an analytical concept and normative idea, modernity is closely linked to the ethos of philosophical and aesthetic modernism; political and intellectual currents that intersect with the Enlightenment; and subsequent developments such as existentialism, modern art, the formal establishment of social science, and contemporaneous antithetical developments such as Marxism. It also encompasses the social relations associated with the rise of capitalism, and shifts in attitudes associated with secularization, liberalization, modernization and post-industrial life.[1]
By the
In the context of art history, modernity (modernité) has a more limited sense, modern art covering the period of c. 1860–1970. Use of the term in this sense is attributed to Charles Baudelaire, who in his 1863 essay "The Painter of Modern Life", designated the "fleeting, ephemeral experience of life in an urban metropolis", and the responsibility art has to capture that experience. In this sense, the term refers to "a particular relationship to time, one characterized by intense historical discontinuity or rupture, openness to the novelty of the future, and a heightened sensitivity to what is unique about the present".[8][failed verification]
Etymology
The
The terms antiquus and modernus were used in a chronological sense in the
The Latin adjective was adopted in Middle French, as moderne, by the 15th century, and hence, in the early Tudor period, into Early Modern English. The early modern word meant "now existing", or "pertaining to the present times", not necessarily with a positive connotation. English author and playwright William Shakespeare used the term modern in the sense of "every-day, ordinary, commonplace".
The word entered wide usage in the context of the late 17th-century
Phases
Modernity has been associated with cultural and intellectual movements of 1436–1789 and extending to the 1970s or later.[12]
According to Marshall Berman,[13] modernity is periodized into three conventional phases dubbed "Early", "Classical", and "Late" by Peter Osborne:[14]
- Early modernity: 1500–1789 (or 1453–1789 in traditional historiography)
- People were beginning to experience a more modern life (Laughey, 31).
- long 19th century (1789–1914) in Hobsbawm's scheme)
- Consisted of the rise and growing use of daily newspapers, telegraphs, telephones and other forms of mass media, which influenced the growth of communicating on a broader scale (Laughey, 31).
- Late modernity: 1900–1989
- Consisted of the globalization of modern life (Laughey, 31).
In the second phase, Berman draws upon the growth of modern technologies such as the newspaper, telegraph and other forms of mass media. There was a great shift into modernization in the name of industrial capitalism. Finally in the third phase, modernist arts and individual creativity marked the beginning of a new modernist age as it combats oppressive politics, economics as well as other social forces including mass media.[15][citation needed]
Some authors, such as
Definition
Political
Politically, modernity's earliest phase starts with Niccolò Machiavelli's works which openly rejected the medieval and Aristotelian style of analyzing politics by comparison with ideas about how things should be, in favour of realistic analysis of how things really are. He also proposed that an aim of politics is to control one's own chance or fortune, and that relying upon providence actually leads to evil. Machiavelli argued, for example, that violent divisions within political communities are unavoidable, but can also be a source of strength which lawmakers and leaders should account for and even encourage in some ways.[18]
Machiavelli's recommendations were sometimes influential upon kings and princes, but eventually came to be seen as favoring free republics over monarchies.
Important modern political doctrines which stem from the new Machiavellian realism include
Starting with Thomas Hobbes, attempts were made to use the methods of the new modern physical sciences, as proposed by Bacon and Descartes, applied to humanity and politics.[27] Notable attempts to improve upon the methodological approach of Hobbes include those of John Locke,[28] Spinoza,[29] Giambattista Vico, [30] and Rousseau.[31] David Hume made what he considered to be the first proper attempt at trying to apply Bacon's scientific method to political subjects,[32] rejecting some aspects of the approach of Hobbes.
Modernist republicanism openly influenced the foundation of republics during the
A second phase of modernist political thinking begins with Rousseau, who questioned the natural rationality and sociality of humanity and proposed that
On the other hand, the notion of modernity has been contested also due to its Euro-centric underpinnings. This is further aggravated by the re-emergence of non-Western powers. Yet, the contestations about modernity are also linked with Western notions of democracy, social discipline, and development.[37]
Sociological
In sociology, a discipline that arose in direct response to the social problems of modernity,[38] the term most generally refers to the social conditions, processes, and discourses consequent to the Age of Enlightenment. In the most basic terms, British sociologist Anthony Giddens describes modernity as
...a shorthand term for modern society, or industrial civilization. Portrayed in more detail, it is associated with (1) a certain set of attitudes towards the world, the idea of the world as open to transformation, by human intervention; (2) a complex of economic institutions, especially industrial production and a market economy; (3) a certain range of political institutions, including the nation-state and mass democracy. Largely as a result of these characteristics, modernity is vastly more dynamic than any previous type of social order. It is a society—more technically, a complex of institutions—which, unlike any preceding culture, lives in the future, rather than the past.[39]
Other writers have criticized such definitions as just being a listing of factors. They argue that modernity, contingently understood as marked by an ontological formation in dominance, needs to be defined much more fundamentally in terms of different ways of being.
The modern is thus defined by the way in which prior valences of social life ... are reconstituted through a constructivist reframing of social practices in relation to basic categories of existence common to all humans: time, space, embodiment, performance and knowledge. The word 'reconstituted' here explicitly does not mean replaced.[40]
This means that modernity overlays earlier formations of traditional and customary life without necessarily replacing them. In a 2006 review essay, historian Michael Saler extended and substantiated this premise, noting that scholarship had revealed historical perspectives on modernity that encompassed both enchantment and disenchantment. Late Victorians, for instance, "discussed science in terms of magical influences and vital correspondences, and when vitalism began to be superseded by more mechanistic explanations in the 1830s, magic still remained part of the discourse—now called 'natural magic,' to be sure, but no less 'marvelous' for being the result of determinate and predictable natural processes." Mass culture, despite its "superficialities, irrationalities, prejudices, and problems," became "a vital source of contingent and rational enchantments as well." Occultism could contribute to the conclusions reached by modern psychologists and advanced a "satisfaction" found in this mass culture. In addition, Saler observed that "different accounts of modernity may stress diverse combinations or accentuate some factors more than others...Modernity is defined less by binaries arranged in an implicit hierarchy, or by the dialectical transformation of one term into its opposite, than by unresolved contradictions and oppositions, or antinomies: modernity is Janus-faced."[41]
In 2020, Jason Crawford critiqued this recent historiography on enchantment and modernity. The historical evidence of "enchantments" for these studies, particularly in mass and print cultures, "might offer some solace to the citizens of a disenchanted world, but they don't really change the condition of that world." These "enchantments" offered a "troubled kind of unreality" increasingly separate from modernity.[42] Per Osterrgard and James Fitchett advanced a thesis that mass culture, while generating sources for "enchantment", more commonly produced "simulations" of "enchantments" and "disenchantments" for consumers.[43]
Cultural and philosophical
The era of modernity is characterised socially by industrialisation and the division of labour and philosophically by "the loss of certainty, and the realization that certainty can never be established, once and for all".[11] With new social and philosophical conditions arose fundamental new challenges. Various 19th-century intellectuals, from Auguste Comte to Karl Marx to Sigmund Freud, attempted to offer scientific and/or political ideologies in the wake of secularisation. Modernity may be described as the "age of ideology".[44]
For Marx, what was the basis of modernity was the emergence of capitalism and the revolutionary bourgeoisie, which led to an unprecedented expansion of productive forces and to the creation of the world market.
Durkheim tackled modernity from a different angle by following the ideas of Saint-Simon about the industrial system. Although the starting point is the same as Marx, feudal society, Durkheim emphasizes far less the rising of the bourgeoisie as a new revolutionary class and very seldom refers to capitalism as the new mode of production implemented by it. The fundamental impulse to modernity is rather industrialism accompanied by the new scientific forces. In the work of Max Weber, modernity is closely associated with the processes of rationalization and disenchantment of the world.[45]
Enlightenment, understood in the widest sense as the advance of thought, has always aimed at liberating human beings from fear and installing them as masters. Yet the wholly enlightened earth radiates under the sign of disaster triumphant.[49]
What prompts so many commentators to speak of the 'end of history', of post-modernity, 'second modernity' and 'surmodernity', or otherwise to articulate the intuition of a radical change in the arrangement of human cohabitation and in social conditions under which life-politics is nowadays conducted, is the fact that the long effort to accelerate the speed of movement has presently reached its 'natural limit'. Power can move with the speed of the electronic signal – and so the time required for the movement of its essential ingredients has been reduced to instantaneity. For all practical purposes, power has become truly exterritorial, no longer bound, or even slowed down, by the resistance of space (the advent of cellular telephones may well serve as a symbolic 'last blow' delivered to the dependency on space: even the access to a telephone market is unnecessary for a command to be given and seen through to its effect. [50]
Consequent to debate about economic globalization, the comparative analysis of civilizations, and the post-colonial perspective of "alternative modernities", Shmuel Eisenstadt introduced the concept of "multiple modernities".[51][11] Modernity as a "plural condition" is the central concept of this sociologic approach and perspective, which broadens the definition of "modernity" from exclusively denoting Western European culture to a culturally relativistic definition, thereby: "Modernity is not Westernization, and its key processes and dynamics can be found in all societies".[11]
Secularization
Central to modernity is emancipation from religion, specifically the hegemony of Christianity (mainly
Theologians have adapted in different ways to the challenge of modernity.
Scientific
In the 16th and 17th centuries,
Francis Bacon, especially in his Novum Organum, argued for a new methodological approach. It was an experimental based approach to science, which sought no knowledge of formal or final causes.[citation needed] Yet, he was no materialist. He also talked of the two books of God, God's Word (Scripture) and God's work (nature).[62] But he also added a theme that science should seek to control nature for the sake of humanity, and not seek to understand it just for the sake of understanding. In both these things he was influenced by Machiavelli's earlier criticism of medieval Scholasticism, and his proposal that leaders should aim to control their own fortune.[61]
Influenced both by Galileo's new physics and Bacon, René Descartes argued soon afterward that mathematics and geometry provided a model of how scientific knowledge could be built up in small steps. He also argued openly that human beings themselves could be understood as complex machines.[63]
Isaac Newton, influenced by Descartes, but also, like Bacon, a proponent of experimentation, provided the archetypal example of how both Cartesian mathematics, geometry and theoretical deduction on the one hand, and Baconian experimental observation and induction on the other hand, together could lead to great advances in the practical understanding of regularities in nature.[64][65]
Technological
One common conception of modernity is the condition of Western history since the mid-15th century, or roughly the European development of movable type[66] and the printing press.[67] In this context the modern society is said to develop over many periods, and to be influenced by important events that represent breaks in the continuity.[68][69][70]
Artistic
After modernist political thinking had already become widely known in France,
For this reason
In the essay "The Painter of Modern Life" (1863), Charles Baudelaire gives a literary definition: "By modernity I mean the transitory, the fugitive, the contingent".[73]
Advancing technological innovation, affecting artistic technique and the means of manufacture, changed rapidly the possibilities of art and its status in a rapidly changing society. Photography challenged the place of the painter and painting. Architecture was transformed by the availability of steel for structures.
Theological
From conservative Protestant theologian Thomas C. Oden's perspective, modernity is marked by "four fundamental values":[74]
- "Moral relativism (which says that what is right is dictated by culture, social location, and situation)"
- "Autonomous individualism (which assumes that moral authority comes essentially from within)"
- "Narcissistic hedonism (which focuses on egocentric personal pleasure)"
- "Reductive naturalism (which reduces what is reliably known to what one can see, hear, and empirically investigate)"
Modernity rejects anything "old" and makes "novelty ... a criterion for truth." This results in a great "phobic response to anything antiquarian." In contrast, "classical Christian consciousness" resisted "novelty".[74]
Within Roman Catholicism, Pope Pius IX and Pope Pius X claim that
Defined
Of the available conceptual definitions in sociology, modernity is "marked and defined by an obsession with 'evidence'," visual culture, and personal visibility.[78] Generally, the large-scale social integration constituting modernity, involves the:[citation needed]
- increased movement of goods, capital, people, and information among formerly discrete populations, and consequent influence beyond the local area
- increased formal social organization of mobile populaces, development of "circuits" on which they and their influence travel, and societal standardization conducive to socio-economic mobility
- increased specialization of the segments of society, i.e., division of labor, and area inter-dependency
- increased level of excessive stratification in terms of social life of a modern man
- Increased state of dehumanisation, dehumanity, unionisation, as man became embittered about the negative turn of events which sprouted a growing fear.
- man became a victim of the underlying circumstances presented by the modern world
- Increased competitiveness among people in the society (survival of the fittest) as the jungle rule sets in.
See also
- Buddhist modernism
- Ecomodernism
- Hypermodernity
- Industrialization
- Islam and modernity
- Late modernity
- Mass society
- Modern Orthodox Judaism
- Modernism (Roman Catholicism)
- Mythopoeic thought
- Postmodernity
- Rationalization (sociology)
- Second modernity
- Traditional society
- Transmodernity
- Urbanization
- East-West Cultural Debate
Notes
- ^ Quotation from Fackenheim 1957, 272–73:
Quotation from Husserl 1931,[page needed]:But there does seem to be a necessary conflict between modern thought and the Biblical belief in revelation. All claims of revelation, modern science and philosophy seem agreed, must be repudiated, as mere relics of superstitious ages. ... [to a modern phylosopher] The Biblical God...was a mere myth of bygone ages.
When, with the beginning of modern times, religious belief was becoming more and more externalized as a lifeless convention, men of intellect were lifted by a new belief, their great belief in an autonomous philosophy and science.
- ^ Quotation from Heidegger 1938[page needed]:
The essence of modernity can be seen in humanity's freeing itself from the bonds of Middle Ages... Certainly the modern age has, as a consequence of the liberation of humanity, introduced subjectivism and individualism. ... For up to Descartes... The claim [of a self-supported, unshakable foundation of truth, in the sense of certainty] originates in that emancipation of man in which he frees himself from obligation to Christian revelational truth and Church doctrine to a legislating for himself that takes its stand upon itself.
- ^ Quotation from Kilby 2004, 262:
... a cluster of issues surrounding the assessment of modernity and of the apologetic task of theology in modernity. Both men [Rahner and Balthasar] were deeply concerned with apologetics, with the question of how to present Christianity in a world which is no longer well-disposed towards it. ... both thought that modernity raised particular problems for being a believing Christian, and therefore for apologetics.
References
- ^ a b Berman 2010, 15–36.
- ^ a b Hroch & Hollan 1998.
- ^ Goody 2013.
- ^ Almond, Chodorow & Pearce 1982.
- ^ Ihde 2009, p. 51.
- ^ Marx, Durkheim, Weber: Formations of Modern Social Thought by Kenneth L. Morrison. p. 294.
- ^ William Schweiker, The Blackwell Companion to Religious Ethics. 2005. p. 454. (cf., "In modernity, however, much of economic activity and theory seemed to be entirely cut off from religious and ethical norms, at least in traditional terms. Many see modern economic developments as entirely secular.")
- ^ Kompridis 2006, 32–59.
- ^ O'Donnell 1979, 235 n9.
- ^ Hartmann 1974, passim.
- ^ a b c d Delanty 2007.
- ^ Toulmin 1992, 3–5.
- ^ Berman 1982, 16–17.
- ^ Osborne 1992, 25.
- ^ Laughey 2007, 30.
- ^ Bauman 1989, ?[page needed].
- ^ Giddens 1998, ?[page needed].
- ^ Strauss 1987.
- ^ Rahe 2006, 1.
- ^ Kennington 2004, chapt. 4[page needed].
- ^ a b c Rahe 2006, chapt. 1[page needed].
- ^ Bock, Skinner, and Viroli 1990, chapt. 11[page needed].
- ^ Rahe 2006, chapt. 4[page needed].
- ^ Strauss 1958.
- ^ Rahe 2006, chapt. 5[page needed].
- ^ Mansfield 1989.
- ^ Berns 1987.
- ^ Goldwin 1987.
- ^ Rosen 1987.
- ^ Vico 1984, xli.
- ^ Rousseau 1997, part 1.
- ^ Hume & 1896 [1739], intro..
- ^ Bock, Skinner, and Viroli 1990, chapt. 10,12[page needed].
- ^ Rahe 2006, chapt. 6–11[page needed].
- ^ Orwin and Tarcov 1997, chapt. 8[page needed].
- ^ Orwin and Tarcov 1997, chapt. 4[page needed].
- ^ Regilme 2012, 96.
- ^ Harriss 2000, 325.
- ^ Giddens 1998, 94.
- ^ James 2015, 51–52.
- S2CID 161642511.
- ^ Crawford, Jason (7 September 2020). "The Trouble with Re-Enchantment". Los Angeles Review of Books.
- S2CID 145523177.
- ^ Calinescu 1987, 2006.
- ^ Larraín 2000, 13.
- ^ a b Adorno 1973.
- ^ Bauman 1989.
- ^ Bauman 2000.
- ^ Adorno 1973, 210.
- ^ Bauman 2000, 10.
- ^ Eisenstadt 2003.
- ^ Fackenheim 1957, 272-73.
- ^ Husserl 1931, [page needed].
- ^ Alexander 1931, 484-85.
- ^ Heidegger 1938, [page needed].
- ^ Davies 2004, 133.
- ^ 133[full citation needed]
- ^ Cassirer 1944, 13–14.
- ^ 13–14[full citation needed]
- ^ Rosenau 1992, 5.
- ^ a b Kennington 2004, chapt. 1,4[page needed].
- ^ Bacon 1828, 53.
- ^ Kennington 2004, chapt. 6[page needed].
- ^ d'Alembert & 2009 [1751].
- ^ Henry 2004.
- ^ Webster 2008, [page needed].
- ^ The European Reformations by Carter Lindberg
- ^ The new Cambridge modern history: Companion volume by Peter Burke
- ^ Plains Indian History and Culture: Essays on Continuity and Change by John C. Ewers
- ^ Weber, irrationality, and social order by Alan Sica
- ^ Orwin and Tarcov 1997, chapt. 2,4[page needed].
- ^ Smith 2003.
- ^ Baudelaire 1964, 13.
- ^ a b Hall 1990.
- ^ Pius IX 1864.
- ^ Pius X 1907.
- ^ Pius X 1910.
- ^ Leppert 2004, 19.
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Further reading
- Adem, Seifudein. 2004. "Decolonizing Modernity: Ibn-Khaldun and Modern Historiography." In Islam: Past, Present and Future, International Seminar on Islamic Thought Proceedings, edited by Ahmad Sunawari Long, Jaffary Awang, and Kamaruddin Salleh, 570–87. Salangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia: Department of Theology and Philosophy, Faculty of Islamic Studies, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
- ISBN 0-8052-4225-2
- ISBN 0-8039-8976-8(pbk)
- Carroll, Michael Thomas. 2000. Popular Modernity in America: Experience, Technology, Mythohistory. SUNY Series in Postmodern Culture. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-4714-6(pbk)
- Corchia, Luca. 2008. "Il concetto di modernità in Jürgen Habermas. Un indice ragionato." The Lab's Quarterly/Il Trimestrale del Laboratorio 2:396ff. ISSN 2035-5548.
- Crouch, Christopher. 2000. "Modernism in Art Design and Architecture," New York: St. Martins Press. ISBN 0-312-21832-X(pbk)
- Davidann, Jon Thares. 2019. "The Limits of Westernization: American and East Asians Create Modernity, 1860–1960." Oxford: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-06820-9
- Dipper, Christof: Moderne (modernity), version: 2.0, in: Docupedia Zeitgeschichte, 22. November 2018
- Eisenstadt, Shmuel Noah. 2003. Comparative Civilizations and Multiple Modernities, 2 vols. Leiden and Boston: Brill.
- ISBN 0-226-22481-3(pbk).
- Gaonkar, Dilip Parameshwar (ed.). 2001. Alternative Modernities. A Millennial Quartet Book. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-2714-7(pbk)
- Giddens, Anthony. 1990. The Consequences of Modernity. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-7456-0793-4
- Horváth, Ágnes, 2013. Modernism and Charisma. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781137277855(cloth)
- Jarzombek, Mark. 2000. The Psychologizing of Modernity: Art, Architecture, History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Kolakowsi, Leszek. 1990. Modernity on Endless Trial. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-45045-7
- ISBN 978-86-519-0449-6
- ISBN 0-674-94839-4(pbk.)
- Perreau-Saussine, Emile. 2005. "Les libéraux face aux révolutions: 1688, 1789, 1917, 1933" (PDF). (457 KB). Commentaire no. 109 (Spring): 181–93.
- Vinje, Victor Condorcet. 2017. The Challenges of Modernity. Nisus Publications.[full citation needed]
- ISBN 9780415081863
- ISBN 978-0761951476
- ISBN 978-0-7456-4218-5
External links
- Media related to Modernity at Wikimedia Commons