Dialects of Serbo-Croatian
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The dialects of Serbo-Croatian include the
The division of South Slavic dialects to "Slovene", "Serbo-Croatian", "Macedonian" and "Bulgarian" is mostly based on political grounds: for example all dialects within modern Slovenia are classified as "Slovene", despite some of them historically originating from other regions, while all dialects in modern Croatia are classified as "Croatian" (or "Croato-Serbian" before 1990) despite not forming a coherent linguistic entity (and some are proven to originate from parts of what is today Slovenia). Therefore, "Serbo-Croatian dialects" are simply South Slavic dialects in countries where a variant of Serbo-Croatian is used as the standard language.
The primary dialects are named after the most common question word for what:
Another frequently-noted distinction among the dialects is made through the reflex of the long Common Slavic vowel jat; the dialects are divided along Ikavian, Ekavian, and Ijekavian isoglosses, with the reflects of jat being /i/, /e/, and /ije/ or /je/ respectively.
Main dialects
South Slavic languages and dialects |
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Shtokavian dialect
History
The Proto-Shtokavian idiom appeared in the 12th century. In the following century or two, Shtokavian was divided into two zones: western, which covered the major part of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Slavonia in Croatia, and eastern, dominant in easternmost Bosnia and Herzegovina and greater parts of Montenegro and Serbia. Western Shtokavian was principally characterized by three-accentual system, while eastern Shtokavian was marked by two-accentual system. According to research of historical linguistics, the Old-Shtokavian was well established by the mid-15th century. In this period it was still being mixed with Church Slavonic to varying degrees, as geographically transitory to Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects spoken on the territory of today's Croatia, with which it had constituted a natural dialect continuum.
Distribution and subdialects
Originally the dialect covered a significantly smaller area than it covers today, meaning that the Štokavian speech had spread for the last five centuries, overwhelmingly at the expense of Čakavian and Kajkavian idioms. Modern areal distribution of these three dialects as well as their internal stratification (Štokavian and Čakavian in particular) is primarily a result of the
By far the most numerous, mobile and expansionist migrations were those of Ijekavian Štokavian speakers of eastern
Shtokavian dialect spoken by Croats has more dialects, there are innovative new Shtokavian dialect ikavian as it is spoken in
The Shtokavian dialect is divided into Old Shtokavian and Neo-Shtokavian subdialects.
Subdialects grouped under Old-Shtokavian are the following:
- Slavonian dialect(also called Archaic Šćakavian).
- East Bosnian dialect (also called Jekavian-Šćakavian);
- Zeta–South Raška dialect(also called Đekavian-Ijekavian);
- Kosovo–Resava dialect (also called Older Ekavian);
- Prizren–Timok dialect (also called Old-Serbian)
Neo-Shtokavian dialects comprise the following subdialects:
- Bosnian–Dalmatian dialect(also called Western Ikavian, Bunjevac dialect, or Younger Ikavian);
- Bunjevac dialect (also called Younger Ikavian, Bosnian-Dalmatian, or Western Ikavian);
- Dubrovnik dialect (also called Western Ijekavian);
- Eastern Herzegovinian dialect (also called Neo-Ijekavian);
- Užican dialect (also called Zlatibor dialect);
- Šumadija–Vojvodina dialect (also called Younger Ekavian);
- Smederevo–Vršac dialect.
Characteristics
Shtokavian is characterized by a number of characteristic historical
General characteristics of Štokavian are the following:[12]
- što or šta as the demonstrative/interrogative pronoun;
- differentiation between two short (in addition to two or three long) accents, rising and falling, though not in all Štokavian speakers;
- preservation of unaccented length, but not consistently across all speeches;
- /u/ as the reflex of Common Slavic back nasal vowel /ǫ/ as well as the syllabic /l/ (with the exception of central Bosnia where a diphthongal /uo/ is also recorded as a reflex);
- initial group of v- + weak semivowel yields u- (e.g. unuk < Common Slavic *vъnukъ);
- schwa resulting from the jer merger yields /a/, with the exception of Zeta-South Sandžak dialect;
- metathesis of vьse to sve;
- čr- > cr-, with the exception of Slavonian, Molise and Vlachia (Gradišće) dialect;
- word-final -l changes to /o/ or /a/; the exception is verbal adjective in the Slavonian southwest;
- d' > /dʑ/ (<đ>) with numerous exceptions
- cr > tr in the word trešnja "cherry"; some exceptions in Slavonia, Hungary and Romania;
- /ć/ and /đ/ from jt, jd (e.g. poći, pođem); exceptions in Slavonian and Eastern Bosnian dialect;
- so-called "new iotation" of dentals and labials, with many exceptions, especially in Slavonia and Bosnia;
- general loss of phoneme /x/, with many exceptions;
- ending -ā in genitive plural of masculine and feminine nouns, with many exceptions;
- ending -u in locative singular of masculine and neuter nouns (e.g. u gradu, u m(j)estu);
- infix -ov- / -ev- in the plural of most monosyllabic masculine nouns, with many exceptions (e.g. in the area between Neretva and Dubrovnik);
- syncretism of dative, locative and instrumental plural of nouns, with many exceptions;
- preservation of ending -og(a) in genitive and accusative singular of masculine and neuter gender if pronominal-adjectival declension (e.g. drugoga), with exceptions on the area of Dubrovnik and Livno;
- special form with the ending -a for the neuter gender in nominative plural of pronominal-adjectival declension (e.g. ova m(j)esta and no ove m(j)esta);
- preservation of aorist, which is however missing in some areas (e.g. around Dubrovnik);
- special constructs reflecting old dual for numerals 2–4 (dva, tri, četiri stola);
- many so-called "Turkisms" (turcizmi) or "Orientalisms", i.e. words borrowed from Ottoman Turkish.
As can be seen from the list, many of these isoglosses are missing from certain Štokavian idioms, just as many of them are shared with neighboring non-Štokavian dialects.
Chakavian dialect
History
Chakavian is the oldest written Serbo-Croatian dialect that had made a visible appearance in legal documents – as early as 1275 ("Istrian land survey") and 1288 ("Vinodol codex"), the predominantly vernacular Chakavian is recorded, mixed with elements of Church Slavic. Archaic Chakavian can be traced back to 1105 in the
Distribution and subdialects
Initially, the Chakavian dialect covered a much wider area than today including about two thirds of medieval Croatia: the major part of central and southern Croatia southwards of Kupa and westwards of Una river, as well as western and southwestern Bosnia and Herzegovina. During and after the Ottoman intrusion and subsequent warfare (15th–18th centuries), the Chakavian area has become greatly reduced and in the Croatian mainland it has recently been almost entirely replaced by Shtokavian, so it is now spoken in a much smaller coastal area than indicated above.
Chakavian is now mostly reduced in southwestern Croatia along the eastern Adriatic: Adriatic islands, and sporadically in the mainland coast, with rare inland enclaves up to central Croatia, and minor enclaves in Austria and Montenegro.
- The majority of Adriatic islands are Chakavian, except the easternmost ones (.
- Its largest mainland area is the subentire Split, and in Pelješacpeninsula.
- Within the Croatian inland, its major area is the Gacka valley, and minor enclaves occur in Pokupje valley and Žumberak hills, northwards around Karlovac.
- Chakavians outside Croatia: minor enclave of Boka Kotorska in Montenegro, the mixed Čičarija dialect in Slovenia, refugees from the Turks in Burgenland (eastern Austria) and SW Slovakia, and recent emigrants in North America (chiefly in New Orleans, Los Angeles, and Vancouver).
The Chakavian dialect comprises the following subdialects:
- Buzet dialect;
- Middle Chakavian;
- Northern Chakavian;
- Southern Chakavian;
- Southeastern Chakavian;
- Southwest Istrian.
Characteristics
There is no generally accepted opinion on the set of characteristics a dialect has to possess to be classified as Chakavian (rather than its admixture with Shtokavian or Kajkavian), but the following characteristics are most commonly proposed:
- interrogatory pronoun is "ča" or "zač" (in some islands also "ca" or "zace");
- old accentuation and 3 accents (mostly in ultima or penultima);
- phonological features that yield /a/ for Old Slavic phonemes in characteristic positions: "language" is jazik (or zajik) in Chakavian and jezik in Shtokavian;
- "j" replacing the Shtokavian "đ" (dj): for "between", Chakavian meju, Shtokavian među;
- "m" shifts to "n" at the end of words: standard Croatian volim ("I love"), sam ("I am"), selom ("village" – Instrumental case) become Chakavian volin, san, selon.
- in conditional occur specific prefixes: bin-, biš-, bimo-, bite-, bis
- contracted or lacking aorist tense;
- some subdialects on island of Pag have kept the archaic form of imperfect
Besides the usual Chakavian (with typical pronoun "ča"), in some Adriatic islands and in eastern Istra another special variant is also spoken which lacks most palatals, with other parallel deviations called "tsakavism" (cakavizam):
- palatal "č" is replaced by the sibilant "ts" (c): pronouns ca and zac (or ce and zace);
- palatals š (sh) and ž (zh) are replaced by sibilants s and z (or transitive sj and zj);
- đ (dj), lj and nj are replaced by the simple d, l and n (without iotation);
- frequent diphthongs instead of simple vowels: o > uo, a > oa, e > ie, etc.;
- Yat (jat): longer y (= ue) exists in addition to the usual short i (or e);
- appurtenance is often noted by possessive dative (rarely adjective nor genitive);
- vocative is mostly lacking and replaced by a nominative in appellating construction;
- auxiliary particles are always before the main verb: se- (self), bi- (if), će- (be).
The largest area of tsakavism is in eastern Istra at Labin, Rabac and a dozen nearby villages; minor mainland enclaves are the towns Bakar and Trogir. Tsakavism is also frequent in Adriatic islands: part of Lošinj and nearby islets, Baška in Krk, Pag town, the western parts of Brač (
Kajkavian dialect
History
Dialectogical investigations of the Kajkavian dialect had begun at the end of the 19th century: the first comprehensive monograph was written in Russian by Ukrainian philologist A. M. Lukjanenko in 1905 (Kajkavskoe narečie). Kajkavian is not only a folk dialect, but in the course of history of Serbo-Croatian it has been the written public language (along with the corpus written in Čakavian and Štokavian). Kajkavian was the last to appear on the scene, mainly due to economic and political reasons. Although the first truly vernacular Serbo-Croatian texts (i.e. not mixed with Church Slavonic) go back to the 13th century (Chakavian) and to the 14th century (Shtokavian), the first Kajkavian published work was Pergošić's "Decretum" from 1574. After that, numerous works appeared in Serbo-Croatian Kajkavian literary language in the following centuries.
Kajkavian literary language gradually fell into disuse since
Distribution and subdialects
Kajkavian is spoken in
The major cities in northern Croatia with prevailing urban Kajkavians are chiefly Zagreb (old central city, Sesvete and V. Gorica), Koprivnica, Krapina, Križevci, Varaždin, Čakovec, etc. The typical and archaic Kajkavian is today spoken chiefly in
Kajkavian dialects have been classified along various criteria: Serbian philologist Aleksandar Belić had divided (1927) the Kajkavian dialect according to the reflexes of Proto-Slavic phonemes /tj/ and /DJ/ into three subdialects: eastern, northwestern and southwestern. However, later investigations have not corroborated Belić's division. Contemporary Kajkavian dialectology originates mainly from Croatian philologist Stjepan Ivšić's work "Jezik Hrvata kajkavaca"/The Language of Kajkavian Croats, 1936, which is based on accentuation characteristics. Due to great diversity of Kajkavian speech, primarily in phonetics, phonology and morphology – the Kajkavian dialectological atlas is notable for its bewildering proliferation of subdialects: from four identified by Ivšić, up to six proposed by Croatian linguist Brozović (formerly accepted division) and even as many as fifteen, according to a monograph authored by Croatian linguist Mijo Lončarić (1995).
The most commonly accepted division of Kajkavian dialect lists the following subdialects:
Characteristics
Kajkavian is closely related to Slovene and to the
Comparative analysis
The Serbo-Croatian dialects differ not only in the question word they are named after, but also heavily in phonology, accentuation and intonation, case endings and tense system (morphology) and basic vocabulary. In the past, Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects were spoken on a much larger territory, but have subsequently been replaced by Štokavian during the period of migrations caused by Ottoman Turkish conquest of the Balkans in the 15th and the 16th century. These migrations caused the koinéisation of the Shtokavian dialects, that used to form the West Shtokavian (more closer and transitional towards the neighbouring Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects) and East Shtokavian (transitional towards the Torlakian and the whole Bulgaro-Macedonian area) dialect bundles, and their subsequent spread at the expense of Chakavian and Kajkavian. As a result, Štokavian now covers an area larger than all the other dialects combined, and continues to make its progress in the enclaves where subliterary dialects are still being spoken.[15]
The main bundle of isoglosses separates Kajkavian and Slovenian dialects on the one hand from Štokavian and Čakavian on the other. These are:[16]
- long falling accent of newer origin (neocircumflex);
- development of the consonant group rj (as opposed to consonant /r/) from former soft /r'/ before a vowel (e.g. morjem, zorja);
- reflexes of /o/ or /ọ/ of the old Common Slavic nasal vowel/ǫ/, and not /u/;
- inflectional morpheme -o (as opposed to -ojo) in the instrumental singular of a-declension.
Other characteristics distinguishing Kajkavian from Štokavian, beside the demonstrative/interrogatory pronoun kaj (as opposed to što/šta used in Štokavian), are:[17]
- a reflex of old semivowels of /ẹ/ (e.g. dẹn < Common Slavic *dьnь, pẹs < Common Slavic *pьsъ); closed /ẹ/ appearing also as a jat reflex;
- retention of word-final -l (e.g. došel, as opposed to Štokavian došao);
- word-initial u- becoming v- (e.g. vuho, vuzel, vozek);
- dephonemicization of affricates /č/ and /ć/ to some form of middle value;
- genitive plural of masculine nouns has the morpheme -of / -ef;
- syncretized dative, locative and instrumental plural has the ending -ami;
- the ending -me in the first-person plural present (e.g. vidime);
- affix š in the formation of adjectival comparatives (e.g. debleši, slabeši);
- supine;
- future tense formation in the form of bom/bum došel, došla, došlo.
Characteristics distinguishing Čakavian from Štokavian, beside the demonstrative/interrogatory pronoun ča, are:[17]
- preservation of polytonic three-accent system;
- vocalization of weak jers (e.g. malin/melin < Common Slavic *mъlinъ; cf. Štokavian mlin);
- vowel /a/ as opposed to /e/ after );
- the appearance of extremely palatal /t'/ or /ć'/ (< earlier /t'/) and /j/ (< earlier /d'/) either in free positions or in groups št', žd';
- depalatalization of /n'/ and /l'/;
- /ž/ instead of /dʒ/ (c.f. Čk. žep : Št. džep);
- /č/ > /š/ (c.f. Čk. maška : Št. mačka);
- word-initial consonant groups čr-, čri-, čre- (c.f. Čk. črivo/črevo : Št. cr(ij)evo, Čk. črn : Št. crn);
- conditional mood with biš in the 2nd-person singular;
- non-syncretized dative, locative and instrumental plural.
The differences among the dialects can be illustrated on the example of Schleicher's fable. Diacritic signs are used to show the difference in accents and prosody, which are often quite significant, but which are not reflected in the usual orthography.
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Torlakian dialect
The Torlakian dialects are intermediate between the Eastern and Western branches of South Slavic, and have been variously described, in whole or in parts, as belonging to either group. In the 19th century, their classification was hotly contested between Serbian and Bulgarian writers.[18]
Most Serbian linguists (like
All old Bulgarian scientists as Benyo Tsonev, Gavril Zanetov and Krste Misirkov[22][23] classified Torlakian as dialect of Bulgarian language. They noted the manner of the articles, the loss of most of the cases, etc. Today Bulgarian linguists (Stoyko Stoykov, Rangel Bozhkov) also classify Torlakian as a "Belogradchik-Tran" dialect of Bulgarian, and claim that it should be classified outside the Shtokavian area. Stoykov further argued that the Torlak dialects having a grammar that is closer to Bulgarian was indicative of them being originally Bulgarian.[24]
In Macedonian dialectology, the Torlakian varieties spoken on Macedonian territory (Kumanovo, Kratovo and Kriva Palanka dialects) are classified as part of a North-Eastern group of Macedonian dialects.[25]
The Torlakian dialects, together with Bulgarian and Macedonian, display many properties of the
Other varieties
Burgenland Croatian
Burgenland Croatian (gradišćanskohrvatski jezik) is a regional variety of the
This variety was the language of
It is still a matter of debate whether Burgenland Croatian should be classified as a Slavic micro-language of its own. Burgenland Croatian dialects are mostly viewed as isolated dialects of
The variety uses the
Burgenland Croatian written language is based mainly on the local
English | Standard Croatian | Burgenland Croatian |
---|---|---|
black | crna | črna |
diver | ronilac | ronilac |
word | riječ | rič |
Jesus Christ | Isus Krist | Jezuš Kristuš |
squash | buča | tikva, tikvica |
floor | dno | tlo |
village, settlement | selo, mjesto, naselje | selo |
rural | seoski, mjesni | seoski |
lower | donji | dolnji |
Molise Slavic
Molise Slavic or Slavomolisano is a variety of the Shtokavian dialect with some Chakavian influences spoken in the
The language was preserved until today only in the aforementioned three villages, although several villages in Molise and Abruzzo region are aware of their
The language is highly Italianized and also retains many archaic features. Because the colony was established before the discovery of the Americas, all the names of animals and plants introduced from the Americas are borrowed from Italian or created from whole cloth. Along with these, Molise Slavic features the following characteristics:
- The analytic do + genitive replaces the synthetic independent genitive. In Italian it is del- + noun, since Italian has lost all its cases.
- do superseded od.
- Slavic (je izaša, he has come out). There is no colloquial imperfect in the modern West South Slavic languages. Italian has aspect in the past tense that works in a similar fashion (impf. portava, "he was carrying", versus perf. ha portato, "he has carried").
- Slavic conjunctions superseded by Italian or local ones: ke, "what" (Cr. što, also ke – Cr. da, "that", It. che); e, oš, "and" (Cr i, It. e); ma, "but" (Cr. ali, no, It. ma); se', "if" (Cr. ako, It. se).
- An indefinite article is in regular use: na, often written 'na, possibly derived from earlier jedna, "one", via Italian una.
- Structural changes in genders. Notably, njevog does not agree with the possessor's gender (Cr. njegov or njezin, his or her). Italian suo and its forms likewise does not, but with the object's gender instead.
- As in Italian, the perfective enclitic is tightly bound to the verb and always stands before it: je izaša, "is let loose" (Cr. facul. je izašao or izašao je), Italian è rilasciato.
Division by jat reflex
A basic distinction among the dialects is in the reflex of the long Common Slavic vowel jat, usually transcribed as *ě. Depending on the reflex, the dialects are divided into Ikavian, Ekavian, and Ijekavian, with the reflects of jat being /i/, /e/, and /ije/ or /je/ respectively. The long and short jat is reflected as long or short */i/ and /e/ in Ikavian and Ekavian, but Ijekavian dialects introduce a ije/je alternation to retain a distinction.
Standard Croatian and Bosnian are based on Ijekavian, whereas Serbian uses both Ekavian and Ijekavian forms (Ijekavian for Montenegrin, Croatian and Bosnian Serbs; Ekavian for most of Serbia). Influence of standard language through state media and education has caused non-standard varieties to lose ground to the literary forms.
The jat-reflex rules are not without exception. For example, when short jat is preceded by r, in most Ijekavian dialects developed into /re/ or, occasionally, /ri/. The prefix prě- ("trans-, over-") when long became pre- in eastern Ijekavian dialects but to prije- in western dialects; in Ikavian pronunciation, it also evolved into pre- or prije- due to potential ambiguity with pri- ("approach, come close to"). For verbs that had -ěti in their infinitive, the past participle ending -ěl evolved into -io in Ijekavian Neoštokavian.
The following are some examples:
English | Predecessor | Ekavian | Ikavian | Ijekavian | Ijekavian development |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
beautiful | *lěp | lep | lip | lijep | long ě → ije |
time | *vrěme | vreme | vrime | vrijeme | |
faith | *věra | vera | vira | vjera | short ě → je |
crossing | *prělaz | prelaz | prеlaz or prijelaz |
prеlaz or prijelaz |
pr + long ě → prije |
times | *vrěmena | vremena | vrimena | vremena | r + short ě → re |
need | *trěbati | trebati | tribat(i) | trebati | |
heat | *grějati | grejati | grijati | grijati | r + short ě → ri |
saw | *viděl | video | vidio | vidio | ěl → io |
village | *selo | selo | selo | selo | e in root, not ě |
See also
- Serbo-Croatian
- Serbo-Croatian grammar
- Comparison of standard Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian
References
- ^ Crystal (1998:25)
- ^ Alexander (2000:4)
- ^ a b Matasović (2008)
- ^ Kapović (2017)
- ^ Brozović (1992:347–380)
- ^ Blum (2002:134)
- ^ Kordić (2010:99–101)
- ^ Okuka (2008:15)
- ^ Okuka (2008:16)
- ^ Okuka (2008:17)
- ISBN 978-953-0-61965-4
- ^ Cited after Lisac (2003:17–18)
- ^ Marc Greenberg, 1996, The Role of Language in the Creation of Identity: Myths in Linguistics among the Peoples of the Former Yugoslavia. [1]
- ^ R. Fureš & A. Jembrih: Kajkavski u povijesnom i sadašnjem obzorju p. 548, Zabok 2006
- Splittogether with their hinterland become basically completely Štokavianised during the 20th century, formerly being Čakavian-speaking urban centres.
- ^ Cited after Okuka (2008:20–21)
- ^ a b Cited after Okuka (2008:21)
- ^ ISBN 9780080877754. Retrieved 2013-03-24.
- ^ Pavle Ivić, Dijalektološka karta štokavskog narečja[permanent dead link]
- ^ Ivić Pavle, Dijalektologija srpskohtrvatskog jezika, 2001, 25 (also published in German)
- ^ The Čakavian Dialect of Orbanići Near Žminj in Istria, Volume 25, Janneke Kalsbeek, 1998, p.3
- ^ Мисирков, Кръстьо (1898). Значението на моравското или ресавското наречие за съвременната и историческа етнография на Балканския полуостров. Български преглед, година V, книга І, стр. 121–127.
- ^ Мисирков, Кръстьо (1910, 1911). Бележки по южно-славянска филология и история – Към въпроса за пограничната линия между българския и сръбско-хърватски езици и народи, Одеса, 30.XII.1909 г. Българска сбирка.
- ^ Bulgarian dialectology, Stoyko Stoykov, 2002, p.163
- ^ K. Koneski, Pravopisen rečnik na makedonskiot literaturen jazik. Skopje: Prosvetno delo 1999.
- ISBN 9027235287. Retrieved 2013-03-24.
- ISBN 9781405175807. Retrieved 2013-03-24.
- ISBN 9780080877754. Retrieved 2013-03-24.
- ^ Cited after Lisac (2003:137–140)
- ^ Cited after Lisac (2009:96, 139)
- ^ a b Breu, Walter (2012-03-06). "Request for New Language Code Element in ISO 639-3" (PDF). ISO 639-3 Registration Authority. Retrieved 2013-06-30.
Bibliography
- Alexander, Ronelle (2000). In honor of diversity: the linguistic resources of the Balkans. Kenneth E. Naylor memorial lecture series in South Slavic linguistics. Vol. 2. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, Dept. of Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures.
- Belić, Aleksandar (2000). O dijalektima. Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredstva. ISBN 9788617076311.
- Blum, Daniel (2002). Sprache und Politik : Sprachpolitik und Sprachnationalismus in der Republik Indien und dem sozialistischen Jugoslawien, (1945-1991) [Language and Policy: Language Policy and Linguistic Nationalism in the Republic of India and the Socialist Yugoslavia (1945–1991)]. Beiträge zur Südasienforschung (in German). Vol. 192. Würzburg: Ergon. p. 200. ISBN 3-89913-253-X.
- Brozović, Dalibor (1992). Michael Clyne (ed.). Serbo-Croatian as Pluricentric Language, u: Pluricentric Languages. Differing Norms in Different Nations. Berlin-New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 347–380.
- Crystal, David (1998) [1987]. The Cambridge encyclopedia of language. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Kapović, Mate (7 November 2017). "The Position of Kajkavian in the South Slavic Dialect Continuum in Light of Old Accentual Isoglosses" (PDF). Zeitschrift für Slawistik. 62 (4): 606–620. S2CID 55046560.
- (PDF) from the original on 1 June 2012. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
- ISBN 953-212-168-4
- ISBN 978-953-150-840-7.
- ISBN 978-953-7611-06-4.
Further reading
- Božanić J. "Čakavska rič", vol. 1.- 32., Književni krug Split.
- Feletar D., Ledić G., Šir A.: Kajkaviana Croatica (Hrvatska kajkavska riječ). Muzej Međimurja, 37 str., Čakovec 1997.
- Friedman, Victor (1999). Linguistic emblems and emblematic languages: on language as flag in the Balkans. Kenneth E. Naylor memorial lecture series in South Slavic linguistics ; vol. 1. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, Dept. of Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures. OCLC 46734277.
- Fureš R., Jembrih A. (ured.) (2006). Kajkavski u povijesnom i sadašnjem obzorju (zbornik skupova Krapina 2002–2006). Hrvatska udruga Muži zagorskog srca, 587 str. Zabok.
- Hamm J., Hraste M., Guberina P. (1956). "Govor otoka Suska". Hrvatski dijalektološki zbornik 1, Zagreb.
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