Soviet invasion of Poland
Soviet invasion of Poland | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of the Lwów, September 1939, following the city's surrender | |||||||||
| |||||||||
Belligerents | |||||||||
Poland | Soviet Union | ||||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
Edward Rydz-Śmigły | |||||||||
Strength | |||||||||
20,000 |
600,000–800,000 troops[2][3] 33+ divisions 11+ brigades 4,959 guns 4,736 tanks 3,300 aircraft | ||||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||||
Total: ~343,000–477,000 3,000–7,000 killed or missing[1][4] Up to 20,000 wounded[1][Note 3] 320,000–450,000 captured[5]: 85 |
Total: 3,858–13,000 1,475–3,000 killed or missing 2,383–10,000 wounded[Note 4] |
The Soviet invasion of Poland was a
The
After the end of World War II in Europe, the Soviet Union signed the Polish–Soviet border agreement of August 1945 with the new, internationally recognized Polish Provisional Government of National Unity on 16 August 1945. This agreement recognized the status quo as the new official border between the two countries, with the exception of the region around Białystok and a minor part of Galicia east of the San River around Przemyśl, which were later returned to Poland.[20]
Prelude
In early 1939, several months before the invasion, the Soviet Union began strategic alliance negotiations with the United Kingdom and France against the crash militarization of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler.
Joseph Stalin pursued the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Adolf Hitler, which was signed on 23 August 1939. This non-aggression pact contained a secret protocol, that drew up the division of Northern and Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence in the event of war.[21] One week after the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, German forces invaded Poland from the west, north, and south on 1 September 1939. Polish forces gradually withdrew to the southeast where they prepared for a long defense of the Romanian Bridgehead and awaited the French and British support and relief that they were expecting, but neither the French nor the British came to their rescue. On 17 September 1939 the Soviet Red Army invaded the Kresy regions in accordance with the secret protocol.[22][Note 7]
At the opening of hostilities several Polish cities including Dubno, Łuck and Włodzimierz Wołyński let the Red Army in peacefully, convinced that it was marching on in order to fight the Germans. General Juliusz Rómmel of the Polish Army issued an unauthorised order to treat them like an ally before it was too late.[25] The Soviet government announced it was acting to protect the Ukrainians and Belarusians who lived in the eastern part of Poland, because the Polish state had collapsed – according to Soviet propaganda, which perfectly echoed Western sentiment that coined the term "Blitzkrieg" to describe Germany's "lightning war" crushing defeat of Poland after just weeks of battle[26] – and could no longer guarantee the security of its citizens.[27][28][29][30] Facing a second front, the Polish government concluded that the defense of the Romanian Bridgehead was no longer feasible and ordered an emergency evacuation of all uniformed troops to then-neutral Romania.[1]
Poland between the two world wars
The
Treaty negotiations
German troops
German officials had secretly been forwarding hints towards Soviet channels for months already, alluding that more favourable terms in a political agreement would be offered than Britain and France.
One day after the German-Soviet pact had been signed, French and British military delegations urgently requested a meeting with Soviet military negotiator
German invasion of Poland and Soviet preparations
Hitler tried to dissuade Britain and France from interfering in the forthcoming conflict and on 26 August 1939 proposed to make
On 1 September 1939 at 11:00 a.m.
On 2 September 1939 the German
The governments of allied Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September, but neither undertook agreed-upon military action nor provided any substantial support for Poland.
On 4 September 1939 all German navy units in the northern Atlantic Ocean received order "to follow to Murmansk, via the northernmost course".[73] On the same day, the Central Committee of the Communist Party and the government of the Soviet Union approved of the People's Commissar of Defense Kliment Voroshilov's orders to delay retirement and dismissal of Red Army personnel and young commanders for one month and to initiate full-scale training for all air defense detachments and staff in Leningrad, Moscow, Kharkov, in Belorussia and the Kiev Military District.[73]
On 5 September 1939 the People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs
On 10 September, the Polish commander-in-chief, Marshal
On 14 September, with Poland's collapse at hand, the first statements on a conflict with Poland appeared in the Soviet press.[79] The undeclared war between the Soviet Union and the Empire of Japan at the Battles of Khalkhin Gol had ended with the Molotov–Tojo agreement, signed on 15 September as a ceasefire took effect on 16 September.[80][79] On 17 September, Molotov delivered a declaration of war to Wacław Grzybowski, the Polish Ambassador in Moscow:
Warsaw, as the capital of Poland, no longer exists. The Polish Government has disintegrated, and no longer shows any sign of operation. This means that the Polish State and its Government have, de facto, ceased to exist. Accordingly, the agreements concluded between the USSR and Poland have thus lost their validity. Left to her own devices and bereft of leadership, Poland has become a suitable field for all kinds of hazards and surprises, which may constitute a threat to the USSR. For these reasons the Soviet Government, who has hitherto been neutral, can no longer preserve a neutral attitude and ignore these facts. ... Under these circumstances, the Soviet Government has directed the High Command of the Red Army to order troops to cross the frontier and to take under their protection the life and property of the population of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus. — People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the U.S.S.R. V. Molotov, 17 September 1939 [81]
Molotov declared via public radio broadcast that all treaties between the Soviet Union and Poland had become void, that the Polish government had abandoned its people as the Polish state had effectively ceased to exist.[30][82] On the same day, the Red Army crossed the border into Poland.[1][77]
Soviet invasion of Poland
Before invasion
On the morning of 17 September 1939, the Polish administration was still fully operational throughout the entirety of the six easternmost
On 17 September 1939 the Polish Army, although weakened by weeks of fighting, still was a coherent force. Moczulski asserted, that the Polish Army was still bigger than most European armies and strong enough to fight the Wehrmacht for a long time.
Opposing forces
A Red Army force of seven
When drawing up the defensive
Military campaign
Commander-in-chief Edward Rydz-Śmigły was initially inclined to order the eastern border forces to oppose the invasion, but was dissuaded by Prime Minister Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski and President Ignacy Mościcki.[1][91] At 4:00 a.m. on 17 September, Rydz-Śmigły ordered the Polish troops to fall back, stipulating that they only engage Soviet troops in self-defense.[1] However, the German invasion had severely damaged the Polish communication systems and caused command and control problems for the Polish forces.[92] In the resulting confusion, clashes between Polish and Soviet forces occurred along the border.[1][91] General Wilhelm Orlik-Rückemann, who took command of the Border Protection Corps on 30 August, received no official directives after his appointment.[7] As a result, he and his subordinates continued to actively engage Soviet forces, eventually dissolving the unit on 1 October.[7]
The Polish government refused to surrender or negotiate peace and instead ordered all units to leave Poland and reorganize in France.[1] The day after the Soviet invasion had started, the Polish government withdrew into Romania. Polish units proceeded to manoeuvre towards the Romanian bridgehead area, repulsing German attacks on one flank and clashing occasionally with Soviet troops on the other. In the days following the evacuation order, the Germans defeated the Kraków Army and the Lublin Army at the Battle of Tomaszów Lubelski.[93]
Soviet units would meet their German counterparts during the advancement from opposite directions. Notable occurrences of co-operation in the field among the two armies were reported, for example, as Wehrmacht troops passed the
Despite a tactical Polish victory on 28 September at the Battle of Szack, the outcome of the larger conflict was never in doubt.[96] Civilian volunteers, militia contingents and regrouped army units held out against German forces in and around of the Polish capital, Warsaw, until the end of September, as the Modlin Fortress, north of Warsaw, surrendered after an intense sixteen-day battle. On 1 October, Soviet troops pushed Polish units into the forests at the battle of Wytyczno, during one of the last direct confrontations of the campaign.[97] Several isolated Polish garrisons managed to hold their positions long after being surrounded, such as those in the Volhynian Sarny Fortified Area which only surrendered on 25 September. The last operational unit of the Polish Army was General Franciszek Kleeberg's Independent Operational Group Polesie. Kleeberg surrendered on 6 October after the four-day Battle of Kock, effectively ending the September Campaign. On 31 October, Molotov reported to the Supreme Soviet: "A short blow by the German army, and subsequently (by) the Red Army, was enough for nothing to be left of this (lit.) bastard (state) (Russian: ублюдок), created at the Treaty of Versailles".[98][99]
Domestic reaction
The response of non-ethnic Poles to the situation caused considerable complications. Many
International reaction
France and Britain refrained from a critical reaction to the Soviet invasion and annexation of Eastern Poland since neither country expected or wanted a confrontation with the Soviet Union at that time.
While France had made promises to Poland, including the provision of air support, these were not honoured. A
On 1 October 1939, Winston Churchill stated in public:
... That the Russian armies should stand on this line was clearly necessary for the safety of Russia against the Nazi menace. At any rate, the line is there, and an Eastern Front has been created which Nazi Germany does not dare assail. When Herr von Ribbentrop was summoned to Moscow last week it was to learn the fact, and to accept the fact, that the Nazi designs upon the Baltic States and upon the Ukraine must come to a dead stop.[109]
Since the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was not an official alliance,[110] modern scholarship has described the German and Soviet cooperation in the invasion of Poland as co-belligerence.[9][10]
Aftermath
In October 1939, Molotov reported to the Supreme Soviet that the Red Army had suffered 737 deaths and 1,862 wounded men during the campaign, a casualty rate that widely contradicted Polish specialist's claims of up to 3,000 deaths and 8,000 to 10,000 wounded.[1] On the Polish side, 3,000 to 7,000 soldiers died fighting the Red Army as between 230,000 and 450,000 men were taken prisoners.[4] The Soviet troops regularly failed to honour commonly accepted terms of surrender. In some cases, after Polish soldiers had been promised to retreat freely Soviet troops arrested them once they had laid down their arms.[1]
The Soviet Union had ceased to recognise the Polish state upon the start of the invasion. Neither side issued a formal declaration of war. This decision had significant consequences and Rydz-Smigly would be later criticised for it.
On 28 September 1939, the Soviet Union and Germany signed the
The Poles and the Soviets re-established diplomatic relations in 1941, following the
Due to denied access to secret Soviet archives, estimates of the number of Polish citizens deported to Siberia and the total number of perished persons under Soviet rule, remained guesswork for decades after the end of the war. Estimates among the numerous publications varied between 350,000 and 1,500,000 for civilians deported to Siberia and between 250,000 and 1,000,000 for the total number of civilians who had died.
Belorussia and Ukraine
According to the last official Polish census the 13.5 million inhabitants in
The
Communist and later censorship
Politburo jargon would stylize the invasion a "liberation campaign" from its inception. The term would consequently be utilized throughout Soviet history among official references and publications.[131] Despite the 1979 publication of a recovered copy of the secret protocols of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact in the Western media, the Soviet Union continued to deny their existence until 1989.[132][133] Attempts to record the factual and fully detailed history of the 1939 Soviet invasion and its consequences have only been made after the fall of the USSR. Soviet
Russia
In a 2009 letter to the Polish daily newspaper Gazeta Wyborcza, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin stated that the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939 was "immoral".[138] In 2015, however, as President of the Russian Federation, he commented: "In this sense I share the opinion of our culture minister (Vladimir Medinsky praising the pact as a triumph of Stalin's diplomacy) that this pact had significance for ensuring the security of the USSR".[139]
In 2016, the Russian Supreme Court upheld the sentence of a lower court, that had found blogger Vladimir Luzgin[140] guilty of the "rehabilitation of Nazism" after he had posted a text on social media that characterized the invasion of Poland in 1939 as a joint effort by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union.[141]
On September 17, 2021, Russia's Foreign Ministry marked the 82nd anniversary of the Soviet invasion of Poland with a Twitter post describing it as a "campaign of liberation", stating that "...peoples of Western Belorussia and Western Ukraine greeted the Soviet soldiers with rejoicing".[142]
See also
- Cursed soldiers 1944–1947
- Evacuation of Polish civilians from the USSR in World War II
- Germany–Soviet Union relations, 1918–1941
- History of Poland (1939–1945)
- Polish Operation of the NKVD 1937–1938
- Russian involvement in regime change
- Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–1946)
- List of German military equipment of World War II
- List of Soviet Union military equipment of World War II
- List of World War II military equipment of Poland
Notes
- Border Protection Corps units, as well as Polish Army units stationed in the East during peacetime, were sent to the Polish-German border before or during the German invasion. The Border Protection Corps forces guarding the eastern border numbered approximately 20,000 men.[1]
- ^ The retreat from the Germans disrupted and weakened Polish Army units, making estimates of their strength problematic. Sanford estimated that approximately 450,000 troops found themselves in the line of the Soviet advance and offered only sporadic resistance.[1]
- Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists.[1]
- ^ Soviet official losses – figures provided by Krivosheev – are currently estimated at 1,475 KIA or MIA presumed dead (Ukrainian Front – 972, Belorussian Front – 503), and 2,383 WIA (Ukrainian Front – 1,741, Belorussian Front – 642). The Soviets lost approximately 150 tanks in combat of which 43 as irrecoverable losses, while hundreds more suffered technical failures.[3] Sanford indicates that Polish estimates of Soviet losses are 3,000 dead and 10,000 wounded.[1] Russian historian Igor Bunich estimates Soviet losses at 5,327 KIA or MIA without a trace and WIA.[6]
- ISBN 0-7864-0371-3.
In September, even before the start of the Nazi atrocities that horrified the world, the Soviets began their own program of systematic individual and mass executions. On the outskirts of Lwów, several hundred policemen were executed at one time. Near Łuniniec, officers and noncommissioned officers of the Frontier Defence Cops together with some policemen, were ordered into barns, taken out and shot ... after December 1939, 300 Polish priests were killed. And there were many other such incidents.
- ^ The exact number of people deported between 1939 and 1941 remains unknown. Estimates vary between 350,000 and more than 1.5 million; Rummel estimates the number at 1.2 million, and Kushner and Knox 1.5 million.[17][18]
- Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg on 9 September. The Soviet zone of influence according to the pact was carved out through tactical operations.[24]
- ^ On 28 September, the borders were redefined by adding the area between the Vistula and Bug rivers to the German sphere and moving Lithuania into the Soviet sphere.[59][60]
- ^ The "Agreement of Mutual Assistance between the United Kingdom and Poland" (London, 25 August 1939) states in Article 1: "Should one of the Contracting Parties become engaged in hostilities with a European Power in consequence of aggression by the latter against that Contracting Party, the other Contracting Party will at once give the Contracting Party engaged in hostilities all the support and assistance in its power."[105]
- ^ The voters were presented with just one candidate for each position of deputy. The Communist party commissars subsequently would press their resolutions in the communities towards complete nationalization of the financial sector and the heavy industries and the transfer of private land to agricultural communities.[125]
References
Citations
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- ^ a b c d KAMPANIA WRZEŚNIOWA 1939 from PWN Encyklopedia. Please note that the above link is the Internet Archive version, mid-2006. The new PWN article Archived 2007-12-28 at the Wayback Machine is significantly shorter.
- ^ ISBN 1-85367-280-7. Same.
- ^ a b c Topolewski & Polak p. 92
- ISBN 978-0-275-98278-2.
- ISBN 5-85976-003-5.
- ^ a b c Gross pp. 17–18
- ^ "The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 1939". Fordham University. 26 January 1996. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
- ^ ISSN 0967-067X.
The Soviet Union participated as a cobelligerent with Germany after 17 September 1939, when Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland
- ^ a b Blobaum, Robert (1990). "The Destruction of East-Central Europe, 1939–41". Problems of Communism. 39: 106.
As a co-belligerent of Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union secretly assisted the German invasion of central and western Poland before launching its own invasion of eastern Poland on 17 September
- ^ "Obozy jenieckie żołnierzy polskich" [Prison camps for Polish soldiers]. Encyklopedia PWN (in Polish). Retrieved 28 November 2006.
- ^ a b Contributing writers (2010). "Stosunki polsko-białoruskie pod okupacją sowiecką" [Polish-Byelorussian relations under the Soviet occupation]. Internet Archive. Bialorus.pl. Archived from the original on 29 May 2010. Retrieved 26 December 2014.
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- ISBN 1-57181-882-0. Retrieved 26 December 2014.
- ^ Rummel p. 130
- ^ Rieber p. 30
- ^ Rummel p. 132
- ^ Kushner, p. 219
- ^ a b Wettig p. 47
- ^ SYLWESTER FERTACZ (18 December 2007). "Bolesna granica, 1945: KROJENIE MAPY POLSKI". Archive. Archived from the original on 25 April 2009. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
- ^ Watson p. 695–722
- ^ Kitchen p. 74
- ^ Davies (1996) p. 1001
- ^ Roberts p. 74
- ^ Przemysław Wywiał (August 2011). Działania militarne w Wojnie Obronnej po 17 września [Military operations after 17 September] (PDF). Institute of National Remembrance. pp. 70–78. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 March 2016. Retrieved 22 December 2014.
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ignored (help) - ^ The Holocaust Encyclopedia. "The Invasion of Poland, Fall 1939 (last edited 25 August 2021)". Retrieved 14 January 2022.
- ^ "The German Ambassador in the Soviet Union, (Schulenburg) to the German Foreign Office No. 317". Avalon project. Lillian Goldman Law Library. Retrieved 11 June 2009.
- ^ "The German Ambassador in the Soviet Union, (Schulenburg) to the German Foreign Office No. 371". Avalon project. Lillian Goldman Law Library. Retrieved 11 June 2009.
- ^ "The German Ambassador in the Soviet Union, (Schulenburg) to the German Foreign Office No. 372". Avalon project. Lillian Goldman Law Library. Retrieved 11 June 2009.
- ^ a b Degras pp. 37–45
- ISBN 978-0-521-43961-9.
- ^ Roshwald p. 37
- ^ Davies (1972) p. 29
- ^ Davies (2002) pp. 22, 504
- ^ Kutrzeba pp. 524, 528
- ^ Davies (2002) p. 376
- ^ Davies (2002) p. 504
- ^ Davies (1972) p. xi
- ISBN 0-521-55917-0.
- ^ Gross p. 3
- ^ Watson p. 698
- ^ Gronowicz p. 51
- ^ Neilson p. 275
- ^ Carley 303–341
- ^ Kenéz pp. 129–131
- ISBN 0-7391-0160-9.
- ^ Watson p. 695
- ^ Shaw p. 119
- ^ Neilson p. 298
- ^ Watson p. 708
- ^ Watson p. 713
- ^ Shirer p. 536
- ^ Shirer p. 537
- ^ Neilson p. 315
- ^ Neilson p. 311
- ^ a b c Roberts pp. 66–73
- ^ Shirer p. 503
- ^ Shirer p. 525
- ^ Sanford p. 21
- ^ Weinberg p. 963
- ^ OCLC 1000049817.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ Dunnigan p. 132
- ^ Snyder p. 77
- ^ a b Shirer pp. 541–2
- ^ a b Osmańczyk-Mango p. 231
- ^ "Telegram: His Majesty's Ambassador in Berlin – Dept of State 8/25/39". Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from the original on 20 February 2002. Retrieved 11 June 2009.
- ^ a b Davies (2002) pp. 371–373
- ^ a b Mowat p. 648
- ^ Henderson pp. 16–18
- ISBN 978-88-341-7637-5.
- ^ Manvell-Fraenkel p. 76
- ^ a b "Борьба против польской оккупации на Западной Украине". Chrono Ru. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t "Советско-польская война". Chrono Ru. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
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- ^ Mowat pp. 648–650
- ^ Stanley p. 29
- ^ a b Zaloga p. 80
- ^ Weinberg p. 55
- ^ a b Gunther, John (1940). Inside Europe. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. xviii.
- ^ Goldman p. 163, 164
- ^ Electronic Museum, Text of the Soviet communique in English translation. 17 September 1939, by Vyacheslav M. Molotov; also s:ru:Нота правительства СССР, врученная польскому послу в Москве утром 17 сентября 1939 года (in Russian), s:pl:Nota rządu ZSRR z 17.09.1939 (in Polish)
- ^ Piotrowski p. 295
- ^ Piotr Zychowicz (28 August 2009). "Zachód okazał się parszywieńki". Plus Minus. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
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- ^ "Renault R-35, R-40". Encyklopedia Broni. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
- ^ Artur Leinwand. "OBRONA LWOWA WE WRZEŚNIU 1939 ROKU". Lwow Home. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
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- ^ a b c Topolewski & Polak p. 90
- ^ a b Gross p. 17
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- ^ Artur Leinwand (1991). "Obrona Lwowa we wrześniu 1939 roku". Instytut Lwowski. Retrieved 16 July 2007.
- ^ a b "Szack". Encyklopedia Interia (in Polish). Retrieved 28 November 2006.
- ^ a b c Orlik-Rückemann p. 20
- ^ Moynihan p. 93
- ^ Tucker p. 612
- ^ Gross pp. 32–33
- ^ Юрий Рубашевский. (16 September 2011). Радость была всеобщая и триумфальная. Vecherniy Brest (in Russian). Archived from the original on 31 December 2013. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
- ^ Montefiore p. 312
- ^ a b c Prazmowska pp. 44–45.
- ^ a b Hiden & Lane p. 148
- ^ Stachura p. 125
- ^ a b c Hiden & Lane pp. 143–144
- ^ Hehn pp. 69–70
- ^ Jackson p. 75
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It is worth clarifying that the Nazi-Soviet Pact was not an alliance as such, it was a treaty of non-aggression. Consequently, aside from the metaphorical tide used here - The Devils' Alliance - I generally refrain from referring to Hitler and Stalin as 'allies' or their collaboration as an 'alliance'. However, that clarification should not blind us to the fact that the Nazi-Soviet relationship between 1939 and 1941 was a profoundly important one, which consisted of four further agreements after the pact of August 1939 and was, therefore, close to an alliance in many respects. Certainly it was far more vital and far more crucial to both sides than, for instance, Hitler's alliance with Mussolini's Italy. Hitler and Stalin were allies in all but name.
- ^ Sanford pp. 22–23, 39
- ^ Sanford p. 23
- ^ "Rozstrzelany Szpital" [Executed Hospital] (PDF) (in Polish). Tygodnik Zamojski. 15 September 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2007. Retrieved 28 November 2006.
- ^ Gross p. 182
- ^ Dallas p. 557
- ^ a b c Davies (1996) pp. 1001–1003
- ^ Gross pp. 24, 32–33
- ^ Piotrowski p. 11
- ^ "Represje 1939–41 Aresztowani na Kresach Wschodnich" [Repressions 1939–41. Arrested on the Eastern Borderlands.]. Ośrodek Karta (in Polish). Archived from the original on 21 October 2006. Retrieved 15 November 2006.
- ^ "Soviet Note of April 25, 1943". 25 April 1943. Archived from the original on 9 September 2005. Retrieved 19 December 2005.
- ^ Sanford p. 129
- ^ Rieber pp. 14, 32–37
- ^ "Polish experts lower nation's WWII death toll". AFP/Expatica. 30 July 2009. Retrieved 4 November 2009.
- ^ Trela-Mazur p. 294
- ^ Rieber pp. 29–30
- ^ Davies (2002) pp 512–513.
- ^ Wierzbicki, Marek (2003). "Stosunki polsko-białoruskie pod okupacją sowiecką (1939–1941)". Białoruskie Zeszyty Historyczne (in Polish) (20). Biełaruski histaryczny zbornik: 186–188. Archived from the original on 23 June 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2007.
- ^ a b Nowak (online)
- ^ Miner pp. 41-42
- ^ Wilson p. 17
- ^ Rieber p. 29
- ^ "The Criminal Secret Protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Chronology – 23 August 1979". Estonian Institute of Historical Memory. 22 August 2019. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
- ^ Biskupski & Wandycz p. 147
- ^ Kubik p. 277
- ^ Sanford pp. 214–216
- ^ Ferro p. 258
- ^ Kaczmarski, Jacek. "Ballada wrześniowa" [September's tale] (in Polish). Archived from the original on 9 December 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2006.
- ISBN 978-1-317-85037-3.
- ^ "Putin defends notorious Nazi-Soviet pact". Yahoo News. 10 May 2015. Retrieved 3 September 2016.
- ^ "How Russia is engaged in a battle for its own history". Sky News. 11 December 2016.
- ^ Anna, Azarova (2 September 2016). "Russia's Supreme Court Questions USSR's Role in 1939 Invasion of Poland". Retrieved 3 September 2016.
- ^ "17 сентября 1939 г. Красная Армия начала освободительный поход на территории Польши. Советские войска вышли на линию Керзона, не позволив вермахту подойти к Минску". Официальный аккаунт МИД России. 17 September 2021.
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External links
- Media related to Soviet invasion of Poland of 1939 at Wikimedia Commons
- Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact