Apple
A request that this article title be changed to Apple (fruit) is under discussion. Please do not move this article until the discussion is closed. |
Apple | |
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'Cripps Pink' apples | |
Flowers | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Rosales |
Family: | Rosaceae |
Genus: | Malus |
Species: | M. domestica
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Binomial name | |
Malus domestica Borkh., 1803
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Synonyms[1][2] | |
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An apple is a round, edible
tradition.Apples grown from seed tend to be very different from those of their parents, and the resultant fruit frequently lacks desired characteristics. For commercial purposes, including botanical evaluation, apple cultivars are propagated by clonal grafting onto rootstocks. Apple trees grown without rootstocks tend to be larger and much slower to fruit after planting. Rootstocks are used to control the speed of growth and the size of the resulting tree, allowing for easier harvesting.
There are more than 7,500 cultivars of apples.[3] Different cultivars are bred for various tastes and uses, including cooking, eating raw, and cider or apple juice production. Trees and fruit are prone to fungal, bacterial, and pest problems, which can be controlled by a number of organic and non-organic means. In 2010, the fruit's genome was sequenced as part of research on disease control and selective breeding in apple production.
Worldwide production of apples in 2021 was 93 million
Etymology
The word apple, whose Old English ancestor is æppel, is descended from the Proto-Germanic noun *aplaz, descended in turn from Proto-Indo-European *h₂ébōl.[5]
As late as the 17th century, the word also functioned as a generic term for all fruit, including nuts. This can be compared to the 14th-century Middle English expression appel of paradis, meaning a banana.[6]
Description
The apple is a
The fruit is a pome that matures in late summer or autumn, and cultivars exist in a wide range of sizes. Commercial growers aim to produce an apple that is 7 to 8.5 cm (2+3⁄4 to 3+1⁄4 in) in diameter, due to market preference. Some consumers, especially in Japan, prefer a larger apple, while apples less than 5.5 cm (2+1⁄4 in) are generally used for juicing and have little fresh market value.
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Apple blossoms
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Botanical illustration
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Apple morphology
Skin
The groundcolor of ripe apples is yellow, green, yellow-green or whitish yellow. The overcolor of ripe apples can be orange-red, pink-red, red, purple-red or brown-red. The skin can also be
Chemistry
Important volatile compounds in apples include
Taxonomy
The apple as a species has been given a number of alternative scientific names, or synonyms. In modern times, Malus pumila and Malus domestica are the two main names in use. M. pumila is the older name, but M. domestica has become much more commonly used starting in the 21st century, especially in the western world. Two proposals were made to make M. domestica a conserved name: the earlier proposal was voted down by the Committee for Vascular Plants of the IAPT in 2014, but in April 2017 the Committee decided, with a narrow majority, that the newly popular name should be conserved.[13] The General Committee of the IAPT decided in June 2017 to approve this change, officially conserving M. domestica.[2]
Nevertheless, a number of publications published after 2017 still use M. domestica as the correct name, under an alternate taxonomy.[14]
Wild ancestors
The original wild ancestor of Malus domestica was Malus sieversii, found growing wild in the mountains of Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and northwestern China.[7][15] Cultivation of the species, most likely beginning on the forested flanks of the Tian Shan mountains, progressed over a long period of time and permitted secondary introgression of genes from other species into the open-pollinated seeds. Significant exchange with Malus sylvestris, the crabapple, resulted in populations of apples being more related to crabapples than to the more morphologically similar progenitor Malus sieversii. In strains without recent admixture the contribution of the latter predominates.[16][17][18]
Genome
Apples are diploid (though triploid cultivars are not uncommon), have 17 chromosomes and an estimated
The first whole genome assembly was estimated to contain around 57,000 genes,[19] though the more recent genome sequences support estimates between 42,000 and 44,700 protein-coding genes.[21][22] The availability of whole genome sequences has provided evidence that the wild ancestor of the cultivated apple most likely is Malus sieversii. Re-sequencing of multiple accessions has supported this, while also suggesting extensive introgression from Malus sylvestris following domestication.[23]
Distribution and habitat
Central Asia is generally considered the center of origin for apples due to the genetic variability in specimens there.[24]
Cultivation
History
The apple is thought to have been domesticated 4,000–10,000 years ago in the Tian Shan mountains, and then to have travelled along the Silk Road to Europe, with hybridization and introgression of wild crabapples from Siberia (M. baccata), the Caucasus (M. orientalis), and Europe (M. sylvestris). Only the M. sieversii trees growing on the western side of the Tian Shan mountains contributed genetically to the domesticated apple, not the isolated population on the eastern side.[23]
Chinese soft apples, such as
Among the traits selected for by human growers are size, fruit acidity, color, firmness, and soluble sugar. Unusually for domesticated fruits, the wild M. sieversii origin is only slightly smaller than the modern domesticated apple.[23]
At the Sammardenchia-Cueis site near Udine in Northeastern Italy, seeds from some form of apples have been found in material carbon dated to around 4000 BCE.[25] Genetic analysis has not yet been successfully used to determine whether such ancient apples were wild Malus sylvestris or Malus domesticus containing Malus sieversii ancestry.[26] It is generally also hard to distinguish in the archeological record between foraged wild apples and apple plantations.
There is indirect evidence of apple cultivation in the third millennium BCE in the Middle East. There was substantial apple production in the European classical antiquity, and grafting was certainly known then.[26] Grafting is an essential part of modern domesticated apple production, to be able to propagate the best cultivars; it is unclear when apple tree grafting was invented.[26]
Winter apples, picked in late autumn and stored just above freezing, have been an important food in Asia and Europe for millennia.[27] Of the many Old World plants that the Spanish introduced to
Apple cultivars brought as seed from Europe were spread along Native American trade routes, as well as being cultivated on colonial farms. An 1845 United States apples nursery catalogue sold 350 of the "best" cultivars, showing the proliferation of new North American cultivars by the early 19th century.[30] In the 20th century, irrigation projects in Eastern Washington began and allowed the development of the multibillion-dollar fruit industry, of which the apple is the leading product.[7]
Until the 20th century, farmers stored apples in frostproof cellars during the winter for their own use or for sale. Improved transportation of fresh apples by train and road replaced the necessity for storage.[31][32] Controlled atmosphere facilities are used to keep apples fresh year-round. Controlled atmosphere facilities use high humidity, low oxygen, and controlled carbon dioxide levels to maintain fruit freshness. They were first used in the United States in the 1960s.[33]
Breeding
Many apples grow readily from seeds. However, more than with most perennial fruits, apples must be propagated asexually to obtain the sweetness and other desirable characteristics of the parent. This is because seedling apples are an example of "
Because apples are not
Dwarf rootstocks for apple trees can be traced as far back as 300 BCE, to the area of
Most new apple cultivars originate as seedlings, which either arise by chance or are bred by deliberately crossing cultivars with promising characteristics.
Since the 1930s, the Excelsior Experiment Station at the University of Minnesota has introduced a steady progression of important apples that are widely grown, both commercially and by local orchardists, throughout Minnesota and Wisconsin. Its most important contributions have included 'Haralson' (which is the most widely cultivated apple in Minnesota), 'Wealthy', 'Honeygold', and 'Honeycrisp'.
Apples have been acclimatized in Ecuador at very high altitudes, where they can often, with the needed factors, provide crops twice per year because of constant temperate conditions year-round.[41]
Pollination
Apples are self-incompatible; they must cross-pollinate to develop fruit. During the flowering each season, apple growers often utilize pollinators to carry pollen. Honey bees are most commonly used. Orchard mason bees are also used as supplemental pollinators in commercial orchards. Bumblebee queens are sometimes present in orchards, but not usually in sufficient number to be significant pollinators.[40][42]
Cultivars are sometimes classified by the day of peak bloom in the average 30-day blossom period, with pollinizers selected from cultivars within a 6-day overlap period. There are four to seven pollination groups in apples, depending on climate:
- Group A – Early flowering, 1 to 3 May in England ('Gravenstein', 'Red Astrachan')
- Group B – 4 to 7 May ('Idared', 'McIntosh')
- Group C – Mid-season flowering, 8 to 11 May ('Granny Smith', 'Cox's Orange Pippin')
- Group D – Mid/late season flowering, 12 to 15 May ('Golden Delicious', 'Calville blanc d'hiver')
- Group E – Late flowering, 16 to 18 May ('Braeburn', 'Reinette d'Orléans')
- Group F – 19 to 23 May ('Suntan')
- Group H – 24 to 28 May ('Court-Pendu Gris' – also called Court-Pendu plat)
One cultivar can be pollinated by a compatible cultivar from the same group or close (A with A, or A with B, but not A with C or D).[43]
Maturation and harvest
Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock. Some cultivars, if left unpruned, grow very large—letting them bear more fruit, but making harvesting more difficult. Depending on tree density (number of trees planted per unit surface area), mature trees typically bear 40–200 kg (90–440 lb) of apples each year, though productivity can be close to zero in poor years. Apples are harvested using three-point ladders that are designed to fit amongst the branches. Trees grafted on dwarfing rootstocks bear about 10–80 kg (20–180 lb) of fruit per year.[40]
Some farms with apple orchards open them to the public so consumers can pick their own apples.[44]
Crops ripen at different times of the year according to the cultivar. Cultivar that yield their crop in the summer include 'Gala', 'Golden Supreme', 'McIntosh', 'Transparent', 'Primate', 'Sweet Bough', and 'Duchess'; fall producers include 'Fuji', 'Jonagold', 'Golden Delicious', 'Red Delicious', 'Chenango', 'Gravenstein', 'Wealthy', 'McIntosh', 'Snow', and 'Blenheim'; winter producers include 'Winesap', 'Granny Smith', 'King', 'Wagener', 'Swayzie', 'Greening', and 'Tolman Sweet'.[30]
Storage
Commercially, apples can be stored for a few months in controlled atmosphere chambers to delay ethylene-induced ripening. Apples are commonly stored in chambers with higher concentrations of carbon dioxide and high air filtration. This prevents ethylene concentrations from rising to higher amounts and preventing ripening from occurring too quickly.
For home storage, most cultivars of apple can be held for approximately two weeks when kept at the coolest part of the refrigerator (i.e. below 5 °C). Some can be stored up to a year without significant degradation.[dubious ][45][verification needed] Some varieties of apples (e.g. 'Granny Smith' and 'Fuji') have more than three times the storage life of others.[46]
Non-organic apples may be sprayed with a substance
Pests and diseases
Apple trees are susceptible to a number of
A wide range of pests and diseases can affect the plant. Three of the more common diseases or pests are mildew, aphids, and apple scab.
- Mildew is characterized by light grey powdery patches appearing on the leaves, shoots and flowers, normally in spring. The flowers turn a creamy yellow color and do not develop correctly. This can be treated similarly to Botrytis—eliminating the conditions that caused the disease and burning the infected plants are among recommended actions.[48]
- Aphids are a small insect. Five species of aphids commonly attack apples: apple grain aphid, rosy apple aphid, apple aphid, spirea aphid, and the woolly apple aphid. The aphid species can be identified by color, time of year, and by differences in the cornicles (small paired projections from their rear).[48] Aphids feed on foliage using needle-like mouth parts to suck out plant juices. When present in high numbers, certain species reduce tree growth and vigor.[49]
- Apple scab: Apple scab causes leaves to develop olive-brown spots with a velvety texture that later turn brown and become cork-like in texture. The disease also affects the fruit, which also develops similar brown spots with velvety or cork-like textures. Apple scab is spread through fungus growing in old apple leaves on the ground and spreads during warm spring weather to infect the new year's growth.[50]
Among the most serious disease problems is a bacterial disease called
Cultivars
There are more than 7,500 known
The UK's national fruit collection database contains much information on the characteristics and origin of many apples, including alternative names for what is essentially the same "genetic" apple cultivar. Most of these cultivars are bred for eating fresh (dessert apples), though some are cultivated specifically for cooking (cooking apples) or producing cider. Cider apples are typically too tart and astringent to eat fresh, but they give the beverage a rich flavor that dessert apples cannot.[57]
Commercially popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Other desirable qualities in modern commercial apple breeding are a colorful skin, absence of russeting, ease of shipping, lengthy storage ability, high yields, disease resistance, common apple shape, and developed flavor.[54] Modern apples are generally sweeter than older cultivars, as popular tastes in apples have varied over time. Most North Americans and Europeans favor sweet, subacid apples, but tart apples have a strong minority following.[58] Extremely sweet apples with barely any acid flavor are popular in Asia,[58] especially the Indian subcontinent.[57]
Old cultivars are often oddly shaped, russeted, and grow in a variety of textures and colors. Some find them to have better flavor than modern cultivars,[59] but they may have other problems that make them commercially unviable—low yield, disease susceptibility, poor tolerance for storage or transport, or just being the "wrong" size. A few old cultivars are still produced on a large scale, but many have been preserved by home gardeners and farmers that sell directly to local markets. Many unusual and locally important cultivars with their own unique taste and appearance exist; apple conservation campaigns have sprung up around the world to preserve such local cultivars from extinction. In the United Kingdom, old cultivars such as 'Cox's Orange Pippin' and 'Egremont Russet' are still commercially important even though by modern standards they are low yielding and susceptible to disease.[7]
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'Ambrosia'
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'Ananasrenette'
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'Arkansas Black'
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'Aroma'
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'Bramley'
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'Cox Pomona'
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'Fuji'
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'Gala'
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'Gloster'
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'Goldrenette' (Reinette)
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'James Grieve'
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'Jonagold'
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'Lobo'
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'McIntosh'
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'Sciros'
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'Sampion' (Shampion)
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'Stark Delicious'
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'SugarBee'
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'Summerred'
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'Tellissaare'
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'Yellow Transparent'
Apple production in 2021 | |
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Country | Millions of tonnes |
China | 46.0 |
United States | 4.5 |
Turkey | 4.5 |
Poland | 4.1 |
India | 2.3 |
World | 93.1 |
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[4]
|
Production
World production of apples in 2021 was 93 million tonnes, with China producing 49% of the total (table).[4] Secondary producers were the United States and Turkey.[4]
Toxicity
Apple seeds contain small amounts of
Allergy
One form of apple allergy, often found in northern Europe, is called birch-apple syndrome and is found in people who are also allergic to birch pollen.[62] Allergic reactions are triggered by a protein in apples that is similar to birch pollen, and people affected by this protein can also develop allergies to other fruits, nuts, and vegetables. Reactions, which entail oral allergy syndrome (OAS), generally involve itching and inflammation of the mouth and throat,[62] but in rare cases can also include life-threatening anaphylaxis.[63] This reaction only occurs when raw fruit is consumed—the allergen is neutralized in the cooking process. The variety of apple, maturity and storage conditions can change the amount of allergen present in individual fruits. Long storage times can increase the amount of proteins that cause birch-apple syndrome.[62]
In other areas, such as the Mediterranean, some individuals have adverse reactions to apples because of their similarity to peaches.
Breeding efforts have yet to produce a hypoallergenic fruit suitable for either of the two forms of apple allergy.[62]
Uses
Nutrition
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
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Energy | 218 kJ (52 kcal) |
13.81 g | |
Sugars | 10.39 |
Dietary fiber | 2.4 g |
0.17 g | |
0.26 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 1% 0.091 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 1% 0.061 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 2% 0.041 mg |
Folate (B9) | 1% 3 μg |
Vitamin C | 5% 4.6 mg |
Vitamin E | 1% 0.18 mg |
Vitamin K | 2% 2.2 μg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 0% 6 mg |
Iron | 1% 0.12 mg |
Magnesium | 1% 5 mg |
Manganese | 2% 0.035 mg |
Phosphorus | 1% 11 mg |
Potassium | 4% 107 mg |
Sodium | 0% 1 mg |
Zinc | 0% 0.04 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 85.56 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[64] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[65] |
A raw apple is 86% water and 14%
Culinary
All parts of the fruit, including the skin, except for the seeds, are suitable for human consumption. The core, from stem to bottom, containing the seeds, is usually not eaten and is discarded.
Apples can be consumed in various ways: juice, raw in salads, baked in pies, cooked into sauces and spreads like apple butter, and other baked dishes.[68]
Apples are sometimes used as an ingredient in savory foods, such as sausage and stuffing.[69]
Several techniques are used to preserve apples and apple products. Apples can be canned, dried or frozen.[68] Canned or frozen apples are eventually baked into pies or other cooked dishes. Apple juice or cider is also bottled. Apple juice is often concentrated and frozen.
Apples are often eaten raw. Cultivars bred for raw consumption are termed dessert or
Apples are an important ingredient in many desserts, such as
Apples are
Organic production
Phytochemicals
Apple skins and seeds contain various phytochemicals, particularly polyphenols which are under preliminary research for their potential health effects.[73]
Non-browning apples
The
Other products
Apple seed oil is obtained by pressing apple seeds for manufacturing cosmetics.[79]
Research
Preliminary research is investigating whether apple consumption may affect the risk of some types of cancer.[73][80]
In culture
Germanic paganism
In
Davidson notes a connection between apples and the Vanir, a tribe of gods associated with fertility in Norse mythology, citing an instance of eleven "golden apples" being given to woo the beautiful Gerðr by Skírnir, who was acting as messenger for the major Vanir god Freyr in stanzas 19 and 20 of Skírnismál. Davidson also notes a further connection between fertility and apples in Norse mythology in chapter 2 of the Völsunga saga: when the major goddess Frigg sends King Rerir an apple after he prays to Odin for a child, Frigg's messenger (in the guise of a crow) drops the apple in his lap as he sits atop a mound.[82] Rerir's wife's consumption of the apple results in a six-year pregnancy and the birth (by Caesarean section) of their son—the hero Völsung.[83]
Further, Davidson points out the "strange" phrase "Apples of Hel" used in an 11th-century poem by the skald Thorbiorn Brúnarson. She states this may imply that the apple was thought of by Brúnarson as the food of the dead. Further, Davidson notes that the potentially Germanic goddess Nehalennia is sometimes depicted with apples and that parallels exist in early Irish stories. Davidson asserts that while cultivation of the apple in Northern Europe extends back to at least the time of the Roman Empire and came to Europe from the Near East, the native varieties of apple trees growing in Northern Europe are small and bitter. Davidson concludes that in the figure of Iðunn "we must have a dim reflection of an old symbol: that of the guardian goddess of the life-giving fruit of the other world."[81]
Greek mythology
Apples appear in many
The Greek goddess of discord,
The apple was thus considered, in ancient Greece, sacred to Aphrodite. To throw an apple at someone was to symbolically declare one's love; and similarly, to catch it was to symbolically show one's acceptance of that love. An epigram claiming authorship by Plato states:[90]
I throw the apple at you, and if you are willing to love me, take it and share your girlhood with me; but if your thoughts are what I pray they are not, even then take it, and consider how short-lived is beauty.
— Plato, Epigram VII
Christian art
Though the
Renaissance painters may also have been influenced by the story of the golden apples in the Garden of Hesperides. As a result, in the story of Adam and Eve, the apple became a symbol for knowledge, immortality, temptation, the fall of man into sin, and sin itself. The larynx in the human throat has been called the "Adam's apple" because of a notion that it was caused by the forbidden fruit remaining in the throat of Adam.[91] The apple as symbol of sexual seduction has been used to imply human sexuality, possibly in an ironic vein.[91]
Proverb
The proverb, "An apple a day keeps the doctor away", addressing the supposed health benefits of the fruit, has been traced to 19th-century Wales, where the original phrase was "Eat an apple on going to bed, and you'll keep the doctor from earning his bread".[95] In the 19th century and early 20th, the phrase evolved to "an apple a day, no doctor to pay" and "an apple a day sends the doctor away"; the phrasing now commonly used was first recorded in 1922.[96]
See also
- Apple chip
- Applecrab, apple–crabapple hybrids for eating
- Cooking apple
- Johnny Appleseed
- List of apple cultivars
- List of apple dishes
- Rootstock
- Welsh apples
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- ^ "PPO silencing". Okanagan Specialty Fruits. 2019. Archived from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
- ^ "United States: GM non-browning Arctic apple expands into foodservice". Fresh Fruit Portal. 13 August 2019. Archived from the original on 27 June 2021. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
- ^ "Okanagan Specialty Fruits: Biotechnology Consultation Agency Response Letter BNF 000132". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 20 March 2015. Archived from the original on 31 October 2017. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
- ^ "Questions and answers: Arctic Apple". Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Government of Canada. 8 September 2017. Archived from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
- S2CID 98590230.
- PMID 27000627.
- ^ ISBN 0-14-013627-4
- ISBN 0-14-013627-4
- ISBN 0-415-13610-5
- ISBN 978-0-8493-8901-6.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-15-683800-9.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-89089-924-3.
- ISBN 978-0-89281-997-3.
- ^ Hyginus. "92". Fabulae. Translated by Mary Grant. Archived from the original on 9 February 2013. Retrieved 7 December 2017 – via Theoi Project.
- ^ Lucian. "The Judgement of Paris". Dialogues of the Gods. Translated by H. W. Fowler; F. G. Fowler. Archived from the original on 2 September 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2017 – via Theoi Project.
- ISBN 9780872203495. Archivedfrom the original on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
- ^ OCLC 38270894.
- ISBN 978-0-89900875-2. Archivedfrom the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
- ^ Genesis 2:17
- ISBN 978-0-69114012-4. Archivedfrom the original on 29 January 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
- ISBN 978-0-19-505399-9. Archivedfrom the original on 29 January 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
- ISBN 978-0375501296.
Further reading
Books
- Browning, F. (1999). Apples: The Story of the Fruit of Temptation. North Point Press. ISBN 978-0-86547-579-3.
- Mabberley, D.J.; Juniper, B.E. (2009). The Story of the Apple. Timber Press. ISBN 978-1-60469-172-6.
- "Humor and Philosophy Relating to Apples". Reading Eagle. Reading, Pennsylvania. 2 November 1933. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
External links
- Media related to Apples at Wikimedia Commons