Iron Age
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The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three historical
Although meteoritic iron has been used for millennia in many regions, the beginning of the Iron Age is defined locally around the world by archaeological convention when the production of smelted iron (especially steel tools and weapons) replaces their bronze equivalents in common use.[2]
In
The
The concept of the Iron Age ending with the beginning of the written
History of the concept
The three-age method of Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages was first used for the archaeology of Europe during the first half of the 19th century, and by the latter half of the 19th century, it had been extended to the archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Its name harks back to the mythological "Ages of Man" of Hesiod. As an archaeological era, it was first introduced to Scandinavia by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen during the 1830s. By the 1860s, it was embraced as a useful division of the "earliest history of mankind" in general[7] and began to be applied in Assyriology. The development of the now-conventional periodization in the archaeology of the Ancient Near East was developed during the 1920s and 1930s.[8]
Definition of "iron"
The characteristic of an Iron Age culture is the mass production of tools and weapons made not just of found iron, but from smelted steel alloys with an added carbon content.[12] Only with the capability of the production of carbon steel does ferrous metallurgy result in tools or weapons that are harder and lighter than bronze.
Smelted iron appears sporadically in the archeological record from the middle Bronze Age. Whilst terrestrial iron is abundant naturally, temperatures above 1,250 °C (2,280 °F) are required to smelt it, impractical to achieve with technology available commonly until the end of the second millennium BC. In contrast, the components of bronze—tin with a melting point of 231.9 °C (449.4 °F) and copper with a relatively moderate melting point of 1,085 °C (1,985 °F)—were within the capabilities of Neolithic kilns, which date back to 6000 BC and were able to produce temperatures greater than 900 °C (1,650 °F).[13]
In addition to specially designed furnaces, ancient iron production required the development of complex procedures for the removal of impurities, the regulation of the admixture of carbon, and the invention of hot-working to achieve a useful balance of hardness and strength in steel. The use of steel has also been regulated by the economics of the metallurgical advancements.
Chronology
Earliest evidence
The earliest tentative evidence for iron-making is a small number of iron fragments with the appropriate amounts of carbon admixture found in the Proto-Hittite layers at Kaman-Kalehöyük in modern-day Turkey, dated to 2200–2000 BC. Akanuma (2008) concludes that "The combination of carbon dating, archaeological context, and archaeometallurgical examination indicates that it is likely that the use of ironware made of steel had already begun in the third millennium BC in Central Anatolia".[14] Souckova-Siegolová (2001) shows that iron implements were made in Central Anatolia in very limited quantities about 1800 BC and were in general use by elites, though not by commoners, during the New Hittite Empire (≈1400–1200 BC).[15]
Similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron-working in the
African sites are revealing dates as early as 2000–1200 BC.[17][18][19][6] However, some recent studies date the inception of iron metallurgy in Africa between 3000 and 2500 BCE, with evidence existing for early iron metallurgy in parts of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Central Africa, from as early as around 2,000 BCE. The Nok culture of Nigeria may have practiced iron smelting from as early as 1000 BCE, while the nearby Djenné-Djenno culture of the Niger Valley in Mali shows evidence of iron production from c. 250 BCE. Iron technology across much of sub-Saharan Africa has an African origin dating to before 2000 BCE. These findings confirm the independent invention of iron smelting in sub-Saharan Africa. [citation needed]
Beginning
Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of large-scale global iron production about 1200 BC, marking the end of the
In
The Iron Age in the
In
Ancient Near East
The Iron Age in the
The Early Iron Age in the Caucasus area is divided conventionally into two periods, Early Iron I, dated to about 1100 BC, and the Early Iron II phase from the tenth to ninth centuries BC. Many of the material culture traditions of the Late Bronze Age continued into the Early Iron Age. Thus, there is a sociocultural continuity during this transitional period.[23]
In Iran, the earliest actual iron artifacts were unknown until the 9th century BC.[24] For Iran, the best studied archaeological site during this time period is Teppe Hasanlu.
West Asia
In the
The development of iron smelting was once attributed to the
Date | Crete | Aegean | Greece | Cyprus | Sub-totals | Anatolia | Totals |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1300–1200 BC | 5 | 2 | 9 | 0 | 16 | 33 | 49 |
Total Bronze Age | 5 | 2 | 9 | 0 | 16 | 33 | 49 |
1200–1100 BC | 1 | 2 | 8 | 26 | 37 | N/A | 37 |
1100–1000 BC | 13 | 3 | 31 | 33 | 80 | N/A | 80 |
1000–900 BC | 37+ | 30 | 115 | 29 | 211 | N/A | 211 |
Total Iron Age [Columns don't sum precisely] |
51 | 35 | 163 | 88 | 328 | N/A | 328 |
Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details.
- Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron Age Historic Iron Age
Egypt
Iron metal is singularly scarce in collections of Egyptian antiquities. Bronze remained the primary material there until the conquest by the
Europe
In Europe, the Iron Age is the last stage of prehistoric Europe and the first of the protohistoric periods, which initially means descriptions of a particular area by Greek and Roman writers. For much of Europe, the period came to an abrupt local end after conquest by the Romans, though ironworking remained the dominant technology until recent times. Elsewhere it may last until the early centuries AD, and either Christianization or a new conquest during the Migration Period.
Iron working was introduced to Europe during the late 11th century BC,[33] probably from the Caucasus, and slowly spread northwards and westwards over the succeeding 500 years. The Iron Age did not start when iron first appeared in Europe but it began to replace bronze in the preparation of tools and weapons.[34] It did not happen at the same time throughout Europe; local cultural developments played a role in the transition to the Iron Age. For example, the Iron Age of Prehistoric Ireland begins about 500 BC (when the Greek Iron Age had already ended) and finishes about 400 AD. According to radiocarbon dating, the Iron Age began on the Iberian Peninsula in 850/800 cal. BC with the arrival of the Phoenicians, while on the Northern Iberian Plateau it will arrive a little later.[35][36][37] The widespread use of the technology of iron was implemented in Europe simultaneously with Asia.[38] The prehistoric Iron Age in Central Europe is divided into two periods based on the Hallstatt culture (early Iron Age) and La Tène (late Iron Age) cultures.[39] Material cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène consist of 4 phases (A, B, C, D).[40][41][42]
Culture | Phase A | Phase B | Phase C | Phase D |
---|---|---|---|---|
Hallstatt | 1200–700 BC Flat graves |
1200–700 BC Pottery made of polychrome |
700–600 BC Heavy iron and bronze swords |
600–475 BC Dagger swords, brooches, and ring ornaments, girdle mounts |
La Tène | 450–390 BC S-shaped, spiral and round designs |
390–300 BC Iron swords, heavy knives, lanceheads |
300–100 BC Iron chains, iron swords, belts, heavy spearheads |
100–15 BC Iron reaping-hooks, saws, scythes and hammers |
The Iron Age in Europe is characterized by an elaboration of designs of weapons, implements, and utensils.[25] These are no longer cast but hammered into shape, and decoration is elaborate and curvilinear rather than simple rectilinear; the forms and character of the ornamentation of the northern European weapons resemble in some respects Roman arms, while in other respects they are peculiar and evidently representative of northern art.[43]
Citânia de Briteiros, located in Guimarães, Portugal, is one of the examples of archaeological sites of the Iron Age. This settlement (fortified villages) covered an area of 3.8 hectares (9.4 acres), and served as a Celtiberian stronghold against Roman invasions. İt dates more than 2500 years back. The site was researched by Francisco Martins Sarmento starting from 1874. A number of amphoras (containers usually for wine or olive oil), coins, fragments of pottery, weapons, pieces of jewelry, as well as ruins of a bath and its pedra formosa (lit. 'handsome stone') revealed here.[44][45]
Asia
Central Asia
The Iron Age in Central Asia began when iron objects appear among the Indo-European Saka in present-day Xinjiang (China) between the 10th century BC and the 7th century BC, such as those found at the cemetery site of Chawuhukou.[46]
The
East Asia
Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details.
- Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron Age Historic Iron Age
In China,
The techniques used in Lingnan are a combination of bivalve moulds of distinct southern tradition and the incorporation of piece mould technology from the Zhongyuan. The products of the combination of these two periods are bells, vessels, weapons and ornaments, and the sophisticated cast.
An Iron Age culture of the
In Japan, iron items, such as tools, weapons, and decorative objects, are postulated to have entered Japan during the late Yayoi period (c. 300 BC – 300 AD)[51] or the succeeding Kofun period (c. 250–538 AD), most likely from the Korean Peninsula and China.
Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new pottery styles and the start of intensive rice agriculture in paddy fields. Yayoi culture flourished in a geographic area from southern
Iron objects were introduced to the
South Asia
Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details.
- Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron Age Historic Iron Age
The earliest evidence of
The beginning of the 1st millennium BC saw extensive developments in iron metallurgy in India. Technological advancement and mastery of iron metallurgy were achieved during this period of peaceful settlements. One ironworking centre in
The protohistoric Early Iron Age in Sri Lanka lasted from 1000 BC to 600 BC. Radiocarbon evidence has been collected from
The earliest undisputed deciphered
Southeast Asia
Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details.
- Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron Age Historic Iron Age
Archaeology in Thailand at sites Ban Don Ta Phet and Khao Sam Kaeo yielding metallic, stone, and glass artifacts stylistically associated with the Indian subcontinent suggest Indianization of Southeast Asia beginning in the 4th to 2nd centuries BC during the late Iron Age.[75]
In
Africa
Early evidence for iron technology in Sub-Saharan Africa can be found at sites such as
Very early copper and bronze working sites in Niger may date to as early as 1500 BC. There is also evidence of iron metallurgy in Termit, Niger from around this period.[17][78] Nubia was a major manufacturer and exporter of iron after the expulsion of the Nubian dynasty from Egypt by the Assyrians in the 7th century BC.[79]
Though there is some uncertainty, some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was developed independently in sub-Saharan West Africa, separately from Eurasia and neighboring parts of North and Northeast Africa.[4][5]
Archaeological sites containing iron smelting furnaces and slag have also been excavated at sites in the Nsukka region of southeast Nigeria in what is now Igboland: dating to 2000 BC at the site of Lejja (Eze-Uzomaka 2009)[6][5] and to 750 BC and at the site of Opi (Holl 2009).[5] The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896–773 BC and 907–796 BC, respectively.[80] Similarly, smelting in bloomery-type furnaces appear in the Nok culture of central Nigeria by about 550 BC and possibly a few centuries earlier.[81][82][4][80]
Iron and copper working in Sub-Saharan Africa spread south and east from Central Africa in conjunction with the Bantu expansion, from the Cameroon region to the African Great Lakes in the 3rd century BC, reaching the Cape around 400 AD.[17] However, iron working may have been practiced in central Africa as early as the 3rd millennium BC.[83] Instances of carbon steel based on complex preheating principles were found to be in production around the 1st century CE in northwest Tanzania.[84]
Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details
- Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron Age Historic Iron Age
See also
References
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...the blade's composition of iron, nickel and cobalt was an approximate match for a meteorite that landed in northern Egypt. The result "strongly suggests an extraterrestrial origin"...
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- ISBN 0-19-283576-9. p. xxix
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Further reading
- Jan David Bakker, Stephan Maurer, Jörn-Steffen Pischke and Ferdinand Rauch. 2021. "Of Mice and Merchants: Connectedness and the Location of Economic Activity in the Iron Age". Review of Economics and Statistics 103 (4): 652–665.
- Chang, Claudia. Rethinking Prehistoric Central Asia: Shepherds, Farmers, and Nomads. New York: Routledge, 2018.
- Collis, John. The European Iron Age. London: B.T. Batsford, 1984.
- Cunliffe, Barry W. Iron Age Britain. Rev. ed. London: Batsford, 2004.
- Davis-Kimball, Jeannine, V. A Bashilov, and L. Tiablonskiĭ. Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age. Berkeley, CA: Zinat Press, 1995.
- Finkelstein, Israel, and Eli Piasetzky. "The Iron Age Chronology Debate: Is the Gap Narrowing?" Near Eastern Archaeology 74.1 (2011): 50–55.
- Jacobson, Esther. Burial Ritual, Gender, and Status in South Siberia in the Late Bronze–Early Iron Age. Bloomington: Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 1987.
- Mazar, Amihai. "Iron Age Chronology: A Reply to I. Finkelstein". Levant 29 (1997): 157–167.
- Mazar, Amihai. "The Iron Age Chronology Debate: Is the Gap Narrowing? Another Viewpoint". Near Eastern Archaeology 74.2 (2011): 105–110.
- Medvedskaia, I. N. Iran: Iron Age I. Oxford: B.A.R., 1982.
- Shinnie, P. L. The African Iron Age. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971.
- Tripathi, Vibha. The Age of Iron in South Asia: Legacy and Tradition. New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2001.
- Waldbaum, Jane C. From Bronze to Iron: The Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean. Göteborg: P. Aström, 1978.
External links
- General
- A site with a focus on Iron Age Britain Archived 18 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine from resourcesforhistory.com
- Human Timeline (Interactive)—Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).
- Publications
- Andre Gunder Frank and William R. Thompson, Early "Iron Age economic expansion and contraction revisited". American Institute of Archaeology, San Francisco, January 2004.
- News
- "Mass burial suggests massacre at Iron Age hill fort". Archaeologists have found evidence of a massacre linked to Iron Age warfare at a hill fort in Derbyshire. BBC. 17 April 2011