History of Antarctica

The history of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe. The term Antarctic, referring to the opposite of the Arctic Circle, was coined by Marinus of Tyre in the 2nd century AD.

The rounding of the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn in the 15th and 16th centuries proved that Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), if it existed, was a continent in its own right. In 1773, James Cook and his crew crossed the Antarctic Circle for the first time. Although he discovered new islands, he did not sight the continent itself. It is believed that he came as close as 240 km (150 mi) from the mainland.

On 28 January 1820, a Russian expedition led by

, set foot on the ice.

Several expeditions attempted to reach the South Pole in the early 20th century, during the "Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration". Many resulted in injury and death. Norwegian Roald Amundsen finally reached the Pole on 14 December 1911, following a dramatic race with the Briton Robert Falcon Scott.

Some authors have suggested that a figure in

The search for Terra Australis Incognita

Ortelius showed the imagined link between the proposed continent of Antarctica and South America. Note also the proposed landmasses surrounding the North Pole

.

Aristotle speculated, "Now since there must be a region bearing the same relation to the southern pole as the place we live in bears to our pole...".^[7]

It was not until Prince Henry the Navigator began in 1418 to encourage the penetration of the torrid zone in the effort to reach India by circumnavigating Africa that European exploration of the southern hemisphere began.^[8] In 1473, Portuguese navigator Lopes Gonçalves proved that the equator could be crossed, and cartographers and sailors began to assume the existence of another, temperate continent to the south of the known world.

The doubling of the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 by Bartolomeu Dias first brought explorers within touch of the Antarctic cold, and proved that there was an ocean separating Africa from any Antarctic land that might exist.^[8]

In 1539, the King of Spain,

.

European geographers connected the coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast of New Guinea on their globes, and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the vast unknown spaces of the south Atlantic, south Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean, they sketched the outlines of the Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), a vast continent stretching in parts into the tropics. The search for this great south land or Third World was a leading motive of explorers in the 16th and the early part of the 17th centuries.^[8]

In 1599, according to the account of

]

Francis Drake, like Spanish explorers before him, had speculated that there might be an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego. Indeed, when Schouten and Le Maire discovered the southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego and named it Cape Horn in 1615, they proved that the Tierra del Fuego archipelago was of small extent and not connected to the southern land.^[8]

Finally, in 1642, Tasman showed that even New Holland was separated by sea from any continuous southern continent. Voyagers round the Horn frequently met with contrary winds and were driven southward into snowy skies and ice-encumbered seas; but, so far as can be ascertained, none of them before 1770 reached the Antarctic Circle, or knew it, if they did.^[8]

The Dutch expedition to Valdivia of 1643 intended to round Cape Horn sailing through Le Maire Strait but strong winds made it instead drift south and east.^[14] Northerly winds pushed the expedition as far south as 61°59 S where icebergs were abundant before a southerly wind that begun on April 7 allowed the fleet to advance west.^[14] The small fleet led by Hendrik Brouwer managed to enter the Pacific Ocean sailing south of Isla de los Estados disproving earlier beliefs that it was part of Terra Australis.^[14][15][16]

The visit to South Georgia by the English merchant Anthony de la Roché in 1675 was the first ever discovery of land south of the Antarctic Convergence.^[17][18] Soon after the voyage cartographers started to depict 'Roché Island', honouring the discoverer.

James Cook was aware of La Roché's discovery when surveying and mapping the island in 1775.^[19]

In 1771,

The Antarctic Circle

The obsession of the undiscovered continent culminated in the brain of

Cook then turned northward to look for

A long detour to 47° 50′ S served to show that there was no land connection between New Zealand and

Discovery of the South Shetland Islands (1819)

The first land south of the

which had arrived there about 5 September 1818. Smith was unable to visit the islands again while his return to the Atlantic.

In October 1819, Smith revisited the South Shetlands, landing on

Before Bransfield's expedition reached its destination,

San Telmo

On September 2, 1819, the Spanish ship

It is believed that William Smith found the remains of San Telmo on Livingston Island,[26]^[27][28][29] but Smith himself never mentioned it and the information is second-hand. There is also uncertainty about where the wreck was actually discovered. Smith landed on Livingston Island only during his fifth voyage to the archipelago, after the expedition commanded by Bransfield. One possible explanation for this discrepancy is that Smith named a bay on King George Island 'Shirreff Bay,' but on a subsequent expedition, Bransfield did not confirm this name in the official records, as he had already named a location 'Cape Shirreff' on Livingston Island. There are doubts as to whether the modest remains were related to San Telmo. During the first season at the turn of 1820 and 1821, four sealing ships were wrecked on the islands.^[30]

The first generally recognized sighting of the Antarctic continent was made at a point within 32 km (20 mi) of the Princess Martha Coast on 27 or 28 January 1820. The Russian expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev, on the ships Vostok and Mirny.^[31] The discovery was described with the problematic term "materyi led" (Russian: матёрой лёд) which can be translated as "hard ice".

The route of this expedition was eastward, as far south as the ice conditions permitted. Two more observations were made, and then, because of the approach of winter, they proceeded to

, previously second mate of the Hersilia.

Meanwhile, on 30 January 1820, Edward Bransfield and William Smith sighted Trinity Peninsula, the northernmost point of the Antarctic mainland.

In the years since the discovery of the South Shetland Islands, there have been many sealing expeditions to the area. Most of them have been poorly documented and non-scientific. In 1950s, the notes of John Davis, captain of Cecilia, one of the ships present there, were discovered. Davis described in them the probably first landing on the continent, which was made by his crew on 7 February 1821.^[32][33]

Of the sealers, the most creditable for the exploration of the coast was captain of Hero, Nathaniel Palmer. The crew of Hero were the second in history to sight the

archipelago.

In 1823, James Weddell, a British sealer, sailed into what is now known as the Weddell Sea. Weddell found very favorable ice conditions there, which allowed him to set a record for the furthest south. Since no land was encountered during the entire voyage, Weddell assumed that the ocean extended to the pole and that there was no continent to the south, only an archipelago.

A piece of wood, from the South Shetland Islands, was the first fossil ever recorded from Antarctica, obtained during a private United States expedition during 1829–31, commanded by Captain Benjamin Pendleton.^[34][35][36]

As the seal population declined, interest in the region waned. However, the search for new seal colonies led to isolated discoveries, such as the discovery of Enderby Land by John Biscoe in February 1831, discovery of Kemp Land by Peter Kemp in 1833 and discovery of Balleny Islands by John Balleny in 1839.

In the late 1830s, interest in the far South increased again, resulting in the organisation of three national scientific expeditions during that period. At that time it was still unclear whether there was a continent there or just ice-bound islands.

The first to set off in 1837 was a

Charles Wilkes, as commander of a United States Navy expedition in 1840,^[46] discovered what is now known as Wilkes Land, a section of the continent around 120 degrees East.

Both expeditions operated in the same region and time, leading to disputed claims of priority of discovery. Dumont d'Urville reached the Adelie Land, on 21 or 22 January 1840. Wilkes, on the other hand, claimed to have discovered the same area, which he named "Wilkes Land", on 16 January 1840, from a greater distance. The differences in dates and the uncertainties regarding the exact locations of the discoveries led to a rivalry for prestige between France and the United States over who was to be the first to discover the Antarctic continent.

After the North magnetic pole was located in 1831, explorers and scientists began looking for the South magnetic pole. One of the explorers, James Clark Ross, a British naval officer, identified its approximate location, but was unable to reach it on his 4 year-expedition from 1839 to 1843. Commanding the British ships Erebus and Terror, he braved the pack ice and approached what is now known as the Ross Ice Shelf, a massive floating ice shelf over 100 feet (30 m) high. His expedition sailed eastward along the southern Antarctic coast discovering mountains which were since named after his ships: Mount Erebus, the most active volcano on Antarctica, and Mount Terror.^[46]

These explorers, despite their impressive contributions to South Polar exploration, were unable to penetrate the interior of the continent and, rather, formed a broken line of discovered lands along the coastline of Antarctica. Following the expedition south by the ships Erebus and Terror, James Clark Ross (January, 1841) suggested that there were no scientific discoveries, or 'problems', worth exploration in the far South.^[47] What followed is what historian H.R. Mill called 'the age of averted interest'^[47] and in the following twenty years after Ross' return, there was a general lull internationally in Antarctic exploration.^[47]

In the second half of the 19th century, one of the commanders of the research expeditions from around 1840 was considered to be the discoverer of Antarctica. In Europe,

In the late 19th century,

By the early 20th century, efforts began to promote Nathaniel Palmer's 1820 expedition, which sighted the Antarctic Peninsula in November of that year.

At the 1925 the priority of Edward Bransfield's expedition, which had mapped the South Shetland Islands and sighted the Trinity Peninsula on 30 January 1820, began to be promoted in Britain.

The

Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration

The first documented landing on the mainland of East Antarctica was at Victoria Land by the American sealer Mercator Cooper on 26 January 1853.^[51]

The Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration began at the end of the 19th century and closed with Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition in 1917.^[52]

During this period the Antarctic continent became the focus of an international effort that resulted in intensive scientific and geographical exploration and in which 17 major Antarctic expeditions were launched from ten countries.^[53]

An important precursor to the Heroic Age of Antarctic exploration was the Dundee Antarctic Expedition of 1892-93 in which four Dundee whaling ships travelled south to the Antarctic in search of whales instead of their usual Arctic route. The expedition was accompanied by several naturalists (including William Speirs Bruce) and an artist, William Gordon Burn Murdoch. The publications (both scientific and popular) and exhibitions that resulted did much to reignite public interest in the Antarctic. The performance of the whaling ships was also crucial in the decision to build the RRS Discovery in Dundee.^[54]

Following on from that expedition, the specific impetus for the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration was a lecture given by Dr John Murray entitled "The Renewal of Antarctic Exploration", given to the Royal Geographical Society in London, 27 November 1893.^[55] Murray advocated that research into the Antarctic should be organised to "resolve the outstanding geographical questions still posed in the south".^[56] Furthermore, the Royal Geographical Society instated an Antarctic Committee shortly prior to this, in 1887, which successfully encouraged many whalers to explore the Southern regions of the world and laid the groundwork for the lecture given by Murray.^[57]

The Norwegian ship Antarctic was put ashore at Cape Adare, on 24 January 1895.^[58]

In August 1895 the Sixth International Geographical Congress in London passed a general resolution calling on scientific societies throughout the world to promote the cause of Antarctic exploration "in whatever ways seem to them most effective".^[59] Such work would "bring additions to almost every branch of science".^[59] The Congress had been addressed by the Norwegian Carsten Borchgrevink, who had just returned from a whaling expedition during which he had become one of the first to set foot on the Antarctic mainland.^[8] During his address, Borchgrevink outlined plans for a full-scale pioneering Antarctic expedition, to be based at Cape Adare.^[60][61]

The Heroic Age was inaugurated by an expedition launched by the Belgian Geographical Society in 1897; Borchgrevink followed a year later with a privately sponsored British expedition.^[62] (Some histories consider the Discovery expedition, which departed in 1901, as the first proper expedition of the Heroic Age.^[63])

The

became trapped in the ice. They became stuck on 28 February 1898, and only managed to get out of the ice on 14 March 1899.

During their forced stay, several men lost their sanity, not only because of the Antarctic winter night and the endured hardship, but also because of the language problems between the different nationalities. This was the first expedition to

Early British expeditions

Carstens Borchgrevink's Southern Cross Expetition (1899). The hut (HSM 22) still stands and is located on Cape Adare, the cape where in 1895 Borchgrevnik participated in the first documented landing

on Antarctica.

The

The Discovery Expedition was then launched, from 1901 to 1904 and was led by Robert Falcon Scott. It made the first ascent of the Western Mountains in Victoria Land, and discovered the polar plateau. Its southern journey set a new Farthest South record, 82°17'S. Many other geographical features were discovered, mapped and named. This was the first of several expeditions based in McMurdo Sound.^[69][70][71]

A year later, the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition was launched, headed by William Speirs Bruce. 'Ormond House' was established as a meteorological observatory on Laurie Island in the South Orkneys and was the first permanent base in Antarctica. The Weddell Sea was penetrated to 74°01'S, and the coastline of Coats Land was discovered, defining the sea's eastern limits.^[72][73][74]

Union flag

at their southernmost position.

Expeditions from other countries

First German Antarctic Expedition

in 1901.

The First German Antarctic Expedition was sent to investigate eastern Antarctica in 1901. It discovered the coast of Kaiser Wilhelm II Land, and Mount Gauss. The expedition's ship became trapped in ice, however, which prevented more extensive exploration.^[78][79][80]

The Swedish Antarctic Expedition, operating at the same time worked in the east coastal area of Graham Land, and was marooned on Snow Hill Island and Paulet Island in the Weddell Sea, after the sinking of its expedition ship. It was rescued by the Argentinian naval vessel Uruguay.^[81][82][83]

The French organized

A follow-up trip was organized from 1908 to 1910 which continued the earlier work of the French expedition with a general exploration of the Bellingshausen Sea, and the discovery of islands and other features, including Marguerite Bay, Charcot Island, Renaud Island, Mikkelsen Bay, Rothschild Island.^[87]

The prize of the Heroic Age was to find and reach the South Pole. Two expeditions set off in 1910 to attain this goal; a

.

Amundsen succeeded in reaching the Pole on 14 December 1911 using a route from the Bay of Whales to the polar plateau via the Axel Heiberg Glacier.^[88][89][90]

Scott and his four companions reached the South Pole via the Beardmore route on 17 January 1912, 33 days after Amundsen. All five died on the return journey from the Pole, through a combination of starvation and cold.^[91] The Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station was later named after these two men.

The Australasian Antarctic Expedition took place between 1911–1914 and was led by Sir Douglas Mawson. It concentrated on the stretch of Antarctic coastline between Cape Adare and Mount Gauss, carrying out mapping and survey work on coastal and inland territories.

Discoveries included Commonwealth Bay, Ninnis Glacier, Mertz Glacier, and Queen Mary Land. Major accomplishments were made in geology, glaciology and terrestrial biology.^[92]

The

A related component of the Trans-Antarctic Expedition was the Ross Sea party, led by Aeneas Mackintosh. Its objective was to lay depots across the Great Ice Barrier, in order to supply Shackleton's party crossing from the Weddell Sea. All the required depots were laid, but in the process three men, including the leader Mackintosh, died.^[94]

Shackleton's last expedition and the one that brought the 'Heroic Age' to a close, was the Shackleton–Rowett Expedition from 1921 to 1922 on board the ship Quest. Its vaguely defined objectives included coastal mapping, a possible continental circumnavigation, the investigation of sub-Antarctic islands, and oceanographic work. After Shackleton's death on 5 January 1922, Quest completed a shortened programme before returning home.^[95]

After Shackleton's last expedition, there was a hiatus in Antarctic exploration for about seven years. From 1929, aircraft and mechanized transportation were increasingly used, earning this period the sobriquet of the 'Mechanical Age'.

On 15 April 1928, only a year after

For this feat and his prior work, Wilkins was knighted.

With financial backing from

Hearst Land

after his sponsor.

US Navy Rear Admiral

on 28 and 29 November 1929, to match his overflight of the North Pole in 1926. Byrd's explorations had science as a major objective and extensively used the aircraft to explore the continent.

Captain

Overland crossing

The 1955–1958 Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition successfully completed the first overland crossing of Antarctica, via the South Pole. Although supported by the British and other Commonwealth governments, most of the funding came from corporate and individual donations.

It was headed by British explorer Dr

. En route, the team were also tasked with carrying out scientific research including seismic soundings and gravimetric readings.

In parallel Hillary's team had set up

areas.

Hillary's party reached the South Pole on 3 January 1958, and was just the third (preceded by Amundsen in 1911 and Scott in 1912) to reach the Pole overland. Fuchs' team reached the Pole from the opposite direction on 19 January 1958, where they met up with Hillary. Fuchs then continued overland, following the route that Hillary had laid and on 2 March succeeded in reaching Scott Base, completing the first overland crossing of the continent by land via the South Pole.^[46]

Charles I of Spain authorized the creation of the Governorate of Terra Australis by means of a royal decree, and ratified its existence by means of other subsequent decrees.^[10]

According to Argentina and Chile, the Spanish Empire had claims on Antarctica. The capitulación (governorship) granted to the conquistador Pedro Sánchez de la Hoz in 1539 by the King of Spain, Charles V, explicitly included all lands south of the Straits of Magellan, (Terra Australis, and Tierra del Fuego and by extension potentially the entire continent of Antarctica) and to the East and West the borders were the ones specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas and Zaragoza, respectively, thus creating the Governorate of Terra Australis.^[10][11][12]

De la Hoz transferred the title to the conqueror

This grant established, according to Argentina and Chile, that an animus occupandi existed on the part of Spain in Antarctica. Spain's sovereignty claim over parts of Antarctica was, according to Chile and Argentina, internationally recognized with the Inter caetera bull of 1493 and the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494. Argentina and Chile treat these treaties as legal international treaties mediated by the Catholic Church that was at that time a recognized arbiter in such matters.^[104] Each country currently has claimed a sector of the Antarctic continent that is more or less directly south of its national antarctic-facing lands.

Modern Spain has not claimed any Antarctic territory. It operates two summer research stations (Gabriel de Castilla Base and Juan Carlos I Base) in the South Shetland Islands.

The United Kingdom reasserted sovereignty over the

and its dependencies and there was a need to close this loophole.

In 1917, the wording of the claim was modified, so as to, among other things, unambiguously include all the territory in the sector stretching to the South Pole (thus encompassing all of the present-day

Under the ambition of

for Australia and New Zealand, he wrote that 'with the exception of Chile and Argentina and some barren islands belonging to France... it is desirable that the whole of the Antarctic should ultimately be included in the British Empire.'

The first step was taken on 30 July 1923, when the British government passed an Order in Council under the British Settlements Act 1887, defining the new borders for the Ross Dependency - "that part of His Majesty's Dominions in the Antarctic Seas, which comprises all the islands and territories between the 160th degree of East Longitude and the 150th degree of West Longitude which are situated south of the 60th degree of South Latitude shall be named the Ross Dependency."

The Order in Council then went on to appoint the Governor-General and

In 1930, the United Kingdom claimed

Following the passing of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, the government of the United Kingdom relinquished all control over the government of New Zealand and Australia. This however had no bearing on the obligations of the Governor-General of both countries in their capacity as Governor of the Antarctic territories.

Meanwhile, alarmed by these unilateral declarations, the French government laid claim to a strip of the continent in 1924. The basis for their claim to Adélie Land lay on the discovery of the coastline in 1840 by the French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville, who named it after his wife, Adèle.^[109] The British eventually decided to recognize this claim and the border between Adélie Land and Australian Antarctic Territory was fixed definitively in 1938.^[110]

These developments also concerned Norwegian whaling interests, who wished to avoid the British taxation of whaling stations in the Antarctic and were concerned that they would be commercially excluded from the continent. The whale-ship owner Lars Christensen financed several expeditions to the Antarctic with the view to claim land for Norway and establish stations on Norwegian territory to gain better privileges.^[111] The first expedition, led by Nils Larsen and Ola Olstad, landed on Peter I Island in 1929 and claimed the island for Norway. On 6 March 1931, a Norwegian royal proclamation declared the island under Norwegian sovereignty^[111] and on 23 March 1933 the island was declared a dependency.^[112]

The 1929 expedition led by Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen and Finn Lützow-Holm named the continental land mass near the island as Queen Maud Land, named after the Norwegian queen Maud of Wales.^[113] The territory was explored further during the Norvegia expedition of 1930–31.^[114] Negotiations with the British government in 1938 resulted in the western border of Queen Maud Land being set at 20°W.^[114]

Norway's claim was disputed by Nazi Germany,^[115] which in 1938 dispatched the German Antarctic Expedition, led by Alfred Ritscher, to fly over as much of it as possible.^[114] The ship Schwabenland reached the pack ice off Antarctica on 19 January 1939.^[116] During the expedition, an area of about 350,000 square kilometres (140,000 sq mi) was photographed from the air by Ritscher,^[117] who dropped darts inscribed with swastikas every 26 kilometres (16 mi). Germany eventually attempted to claim the territory surveyed by Ritscher under the name New Swabia, but lost any claim to the land following its defeat in the Second World War.^[115]

On 14 January 1939, five days prior to the German arrival, Queen Maud Land was annexed by Norway,^[113] after a royal decree announced that the land bordering the Falkland Islands Dependencies in the west and the Australian Antarctic Dependency in the east was to be brought under Norwegian sovereignty.^[114] The primary basis for the annexation was to secure the Norwegian whaling industry's access to the region.^[113][118] In 1948, Norway and the United Kingdom agreed to limit Queen Maud Land to from 20°W to 45°E, and that the Bruce Coast and Coats Land were to be incorporated into Norwegian territory.^[114]

This encroachment of foreign powers was a matter of immense disquiet to the nearby South American countries,

In the 20th Century these areas were claimed by Britain.

Argentina had an even longer history of involvement in the Continent. Already in 1904 the Argentine government began a permanent occupation in the area with the purchase of a meteorological station on Laurie Island established in 1903 by Dr William S. Bruce's Scottish National Antarctic Expedition. Bruce offered to transfer the station and instruments for the sum of 5.000 pesos, on the condition that the government committed itself to the continuation of the scientific mission.^[119] British officer William Haggard also sent a note to the Argentine Foreign Minister, Jose Terry, ratifying the terms of Bruce proposition.^[119]

In 1906, Argentina communicated to the international community the establishment of a permanent base on South Orkney Islands. However, Haggard responded by reminding Argentina that the

were British. The British position was that Argentine personnel was granted permission only for the period of one year. The Argentine government entered into negotiations with the British in 1913 over the possible transfer of the island. Although these talks were unsuccessful, Argentina attempted to unilaterally establish their sovereignty with the erection of markers, national flags and other symbols. ^[120]

On January 14, 1939, Norway declared its territorial claims on Antarctic territory between 0° and 20° (Queen Maud Land). This alarmed the Chilean government, which led President Pedro Aguirre Cerda to encourage the definition of the National Antarctic Territory. With the establishment of Decree No. 1541 on September 7, he organized a commission to examine Norway's interests in the Antarctic territory.

The Chilean commission set the bounds according to the Theory of polar areas, taking into account geographical, historical, legal, and diplomatic precedents, which were formalized by Decree No. 1747, enacted on November 6, 1940, and published on June 21, 1955.^[121] Chile considered their Antarctic rights arrived up to the meridian located further west (53° West). Thus, the country claimed to not include the South Orkney Islands in consideration of the rights of Argentina.^[d]

In response to this and earlier German explorations, the British Admiralty and

about the direction of United States post-war activity in the region.

A suitable cover story was the need to deny use of the area to the enemy. The Kriegsmarine was known to use remote islands as rendezvous points and as shelters for commerce raiders, U-boats and supply ships. Also, in 1941, there existed a fear that Japan might attempt to seize the Falkland Islands, either as a base or to hand them over to Argentina, thus gaining political advantage for the Axis and denying their use to Britain.

In January 1942, Argentina declared its Antarctic rights between the meridians at 25° and 68° 24' W, which includes the area of Punta Dúngeness. On September 2, 1946, Decree No. 8944 set new boundaries for the Argentine Antarctic Sector between the meridians at 25° and 74° west longitude. Finally, on February 28, 1957, Decree Law No. 2129 established the definitive limits of their claim between the meridians at 25° and 74° West and the parallel 60° South latitude. This decree established a territory which is superimposed on part of the territory claimed by Chile.^{[citation needed]}

Finally, with British attention elsewhere, Argentina declared the establishment of Argentine Antarctica in 1943, claiming territory that overlapped with British ( 20°W to 80°W) and the earlier Chilean (53°W to 90°W) claims.^{[citation needed]}

In 1943, British personnel from

(a minesweeping trawler) and Fitzroy, on Saturday 29 January 1944.

Bases were established during February near the abandoned Norwegian whaling station on

were issued.

Following the end of the war in 1945, the British bases were handed over to civilian members of the newly created

) the first such national scientific body to be established in Antarctica.

Geopolitics over Antarctica and the control of the passages between the south Atlantic and the south Pacific have led to the founding of cities and towns such as Ushuaia and Puerto Williams, both of which claim to be the southernmost cities in World.

In the late 1940s, Argentina and Chile recognized each other's claims,^[125] stating that "Chile and Argentina have unquestionable rights of sovereignty in the polar area called American Antarctica ("Antártida Americana" in Spanish)".^[126][127]

On March 4, 1948, Chile and Argentina signed an agreement on mutual protection and legal defense of its Antarctic territorial rights, recognizing each other:^{[citation needed]}

(...) until agreed, by mutual agreement, the line common neighborhood in Antarctic territories of Chile and Argentina, declared:
1) That both governments acting in agreement on legal protection and defense of their rights in American Antarctica, between the meridians 25° and 90° west longitude of Greenwich, indisputable sovereign rights are recognized by Chile and Argentina.

Currently,^[when?] both countries have research stations in Antarctica, as does the United Kingdom. All three nations claim the totality of the Antarctic Peninsula.

Friction between Britain and the Latin American states continued into the post war period. Royal Navy warships were despatched in 1948 to prevent naval incursions and in 1952, an Argentine shore party at Hope Bay (the British Base "D", established there in 1945, came up against the Argentine Esperanza Base, est. 1952) fired a machine gun over the heads of a British Antarctic Survey team unloading supplies from the John Biscoe. The Argentines later extended a diplomatic apology, saying that there had been a misunderstanding and that the Argentine military commander on the ground had exceeded his authority.

The United States became politically interested in the Antarctic continent before and during WWII. The

However, immediately after the war, American interest was rekindled with an explicitly geopolitical motive. Operation Highjump, from 1946 to 1947 was organized by Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd Jr. and included 4,700 men, 13 ships, and multiple aircraft. The primary mission of Operation Highjump was to establish the Antarctic research base Little America IV,^[129] for the purpose of training personnel and testing equipment in frigid conditions and amplifying existing stores of knowledge of hydrographic, geographic, geological, meteorological and electromagnetic propagation conditions in the area. The mission was also aimed at consolidating and extending United States sovereignty over the largest practicable area of the Antarctic continent, although this was publicly denied as a goal even before the expedition ended.

Meanwhile, in an attempt at ending the impasse, on May 4, 1955, Britain submitted two applications to the International Court of Justice to adjudicate between the territorial claims of Britain, Argentina and Chile, declaring invalid the claims of sovereignty of the two countries in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic areas, respectively. This proposal failed, as both Latin American countries rejected submitting to an international arbitration procedure.^[130] On July 15, 1955, the Chilean government rejected the jurisdiction of the Court in that case, and on August 1, August, Argentine government followed suit. Thus, on March 16 March 1956, claims were filed.^[131]

Law No. 11486 of June 17, 1955, added the Chilean Antarctic Territory to the

.

In 1958, the U.S. president,

Conference in an attempt to resolve the claiming issues.

Negotiations towards the establishment of an international condominium over the continent first began in 1948, involving the 7 claimant powers (Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, Norway, Chile and Argentina) and the US. This attempt was aimed at excluding the Soviet Union from the affairs of the continent and rapidly fell apart when the USSR declared an interest in the region, refused to recognize any claims of sovereignty and reserved the right to make its own claims in 1950.^[130]

An important impetus toward the formation of the

was built as the first Japanese observation base on Antarctica.

France contributed with Dumont d'Urville Station and Charcot Station in Adélie Land. The ship Commandant Charcot of the French Navy spent nine months of 1949/50 at the coast of Adelie Land, performing ionospheric soundings.^[132] The US erected the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station as the first permanent structure directly over the South Pole in January 1957.^[133]

Finally, to prevent the possibility of military conflict in the region, the United States, United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and 9 other countries with significant interests negotiated and signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959. The treaty entered into force in 1961 and sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and banned military activity on that continent. The treaty was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War.^[134]

In May 1965, the American physicist Carl R. Disch went missing during the course of his routine research near Byrd Station, Antarctica. His body was never found.^{[135][failed verification]}

A baby, named Emilio Marcos de Palma, was born near Hope Bay on 7 January 1978, becoming the first baby born on the continent. He also was born farther south than anyone in history.^[136]

On 28 November 1979, an

In 1991 a convention among member nations of the Antarctic Treaty on how to regulate mining and drilling was proposed. Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke and French Prime Minister Michel Rocard led a response to this convention that resulted in the adoption of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, now known as the Madrid Protocol. All mineral extraction was banned for 50 years and the Antarctic was set aside as a "natural reserve, devoted to peace and science".^[138]

Børge Ousland, a Norwegian explorer, finished the first unassisted Antarctic solo crossing on 18 January 1997.

On 23 November 2007, the MV Explorer struck an iceberg and sank, but all on board were rescued by nearby ships, including a passing Norwegian cruise ship, the MS Nordnorge.

In 2010, the IceCube Neutrino Observatory was completed.^[139] In 2013, it was reported that the observatory had detected 28 neutrinos that originated outside the Solar system.^[140]

Women did not explore Antarctica until well into the 1950s. A few pioneering women visited the Antarctic land and waters prior to the 1950s and many women requested to go on early expeditions, but were turned away.^[141] Early pioneers such as Louise Séguin^[142] and Ingrid Christensen were some of the first women to see Antarctic waters.^[143] Christensen was the first woman to set foot on the mainland of Antarctica.^[143] The first women to have any fanfare about their Antarctic journeys were Caroline Mikkelsen who set foot on an island of Antarctica in 1935,^[144] and Jackie Ronne and Jennie Darlington who were the first women to over-winter in Antarctica in 1947.^[145] The first woman scientist to work in Antarctica was Maria Klenova in 1956.^[146] Silvia Morella de Palma was the first woman to give birth in Antarctica, delivering 3.4 kg (7 lb 8 oz) Emilio Palma at the Argentine Esperanza base 7 January 1978.

Women faced legal barriers and sexism that prevented most from visiting Antarctica and doing research until the late 1960s. The United States Congress banned American women from traveling to Antarctica until 1969.^[147] Women were often excluded because it was thought that they could not handle the extreme temperatures or crisis situations.^[148] The first woman from the British Antarctic Survey to go to Antarctica was Janet Thomson in 1983 who described the ban on women as a "rather improper segregation."^[149][150]

Once women were allowed in Antarctica, they still had to fight against sexism and sexual harassment.^[151][152] However, a tipping point was reached in the mid-1990s when it became the new normal that women were part of Antarctic life.^[153] Women began to see a change as more and more women began working and researching in Antarctica.^[154]

• Colonization of Antarctica
• Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
• History of Livingston Island
• History of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
• List of Antarctic expeditions
• List of Russian explorers
• Research stations in Antarctica
• Timeline of women in Antarctica
• Ui-te-Rangiora, a Polynesian navigator who may have reached or sighted Antarctica
• Women in Antarctica

Geography portal

Sources

• Alberts, Fred G., ed. (1995), Geographic Names of the Antarctic (PDF) (2 ed.), United States Board on Geographic Names, retrieved 2023-12-03  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Board on Geographic Names.
• Stackpole, Edouard (1955), The voyage of the Huron and the Huntress, Mystic, CT: Marine Historical Association, INC.
• Tammiksaar, E. (2016). "The Russian Antarctic Expedition under the command of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and its reception in Russia and the world". Vol. 52, no. 5. Polar Record. pp. 578–600.

• Балкли Рип (Англия) (2013). "Первые наблюдения материковой части Антарктиды: попытка критического анализа". No. 4. Вопросы истории естествознания и техники. pp. 41–56. Archived from the original on 2022-09-12. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
• Беллинсгаузен Ф. Ф. (2008). Двукратные изыскания в Южном Ледовитом океане и плавание вокруг света (in Russian). Moscow: Дрофа.
  ISBN 978-5-358-02961-3
  .

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Antarctica

• "Working-Class Hero". Portland Magazine. 8 November 2012. Archived from the original on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 8 November 2012. — "'She's just moored there at the dock in Bay Center, sitting in the mud,' says Charles Lagerbom, Northport, Maine, resident and president of the Antarctican Society".
• The South Pole; an account of the Norwegian Antarctic expedition in the "Fram", 1910–12 — Volume 1 and Volume 2 at Project Gutenberg
• The Worst Journey in the World, Volumes 1 and 2 Antarctic 1910–1913 at Project Gutenberg
• South: the story of Shackleton's 1914–1917 expedition at Project Gutenberg
• Anthony, Jason C. (2012).
  ISBN 978-0-8032-2666-1
  .
• Robert Clancy, John Manning, Henk Brolsma: Mapping Antarctica: A Five Hundred Year Record of Discovery. Springer, 2014.
  ISBN 978-94-007-4321-2
  [eBook]
• Ivanov, L. General Geography and History of Livingston Island. In: Bulgarian Antarctic Research: A Synthesis. Eds. C. Pimpirev and N. Chipev. Sofia: St. Kliment Ohridski University Press, 2015. pp. 17–28.
  ISBN 978-954-07-3939-7

External links

• Early Antarctic Adventures (State Library of New South Wales)
• PCO: Antarctic History
• Antarctic Heritage Trust
• Surveying Antarctica, 1957
• Big Dead Place
• Working-Class 'Hero' after two decades of polar exploration. Archived 2019-12-30 at the Wayback Machine
• Hurley's Antarctica

67°15′S 39°35′E / 67.250°S 39.583°E / -67.250; 39.583