Fridtjof Nansen
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Fridtjof Wedel-Jarlsberg Nansen (Norwegian: [ˈfrɪ̂tːjɔf ˈnɑ̀nsn̩]; 10 October 1861 – 13 May 1930) was a Norwegian polymath and Nobel Peace Prize laureate. He gained prominence at various points in his life as an explorer, scientist, diplomat, humanitarian and co-founded the Fatherland League.
He led the team that made the first crossing of the
Nansen studied
As one of his country's leading citizens, in 1905 Nansen spoke out for the
In the final decade of his life, Nansen devoted himself primarily to the
Family background and childhood
The Nansen family originated from
Baldur was a lawyer without ambitions for public life, who became Reporter to the
Store Frøen's rural surroundings shaped the nature of Nansen's childhood. In the short summers the main activities were swimming and fishing, while in the autumn the chief pastime was hunting for game in the forests. The long winter months were devoted mainly to skiing, which Nansen began to practice at the age of two, on improvised skis.[6] At the age of 10 he defied his parents and attempted the ski jump at the nearby Huseby installation. This exploit had near-disastrous consequences, as on landing the skis dug deep into the snow, pitching the boy forward: "I, head first, described a fine arc in the air ... [W]hen I came down again I bored into the snow up to my waist. The boys thought I had broken my neck, but as soon as they saw there was life in me ... a shout of mocking laughter went up."[5] Nansen's enthusiasm for skiing was undiminished, though as he records, his efforts were overshadowed by those of the skiers from the mountainous region of Telemark, where a new style of skiing was being developed. "I saw this was the only way", wrote Nansen later.[7]
At school, Nansen worked adequately without showing any particular aptitude.[6] Studies took second place to sports, or to expeditions into the forests where he would live "like Robinson Crusoe" for weeks at a time.[8] Through such experiences Nansen developed a marked degree of self-reliance. He became an accomplished skier and a highly proficient skater. Life was disrupted when, in the summer of 1877, Adelaide Nansen died suddenly. Distressed, Baldur Nansen sold the Store Frøen property and moved with his two sons to Christiania.[9] Nansen's sporting prowess continued to develop; at 18 he broke the world one-mile (1.6 km) skating record, and in the following year won the national cross-country skiing championship, a feat he would repeat on 11 subsequent occasions.[10]
Student and adventurer
In 1880 Nansen passed his university entrance examination, the
Early in 1882 Nansen took "...the first fatal step that led me astray from the quiet life of science."[12] Professor Robert Collett of the university's zoology department proposed that Nansen take a sea voyage, to study Arctic zoology at first hand. Nansen was enthusiastic, and made arrangements through a recent acquaintance, Captain Axel Krefting, commander of the sealer Viking. The voyage began on 11 March 1882 and extended over the following five months. In the weeks before sealing started, Nansen was able to concentrate on scientific studies.[13] From water samples he showed that, contrary to previous assumption, sea ice forms on the surface of the water rather than below. His readings also demonstrated that the Gulf Stream flows beneath a cold layer of surface water.[14] Through the spring and early summer Viking roamed between Greenland and Spitsbergen in search of seal herds. Nansen became an expert marksman, and on one day proudly recorded that his team had shot 200 seals. In July, Viking became trapped in the ice close to an unexplored section of the Greenland coast; Nansen longed to go ashore, but this was impossible.[13] However, he began to develop the idea that the Greenland icecap might be explored, or even crossed.[10] On 17 July the ship broke free from the ice, and early in August was back in Norwegian waters.[13]
Nansen did not resume formal studies at the university. Instead, on Collett's recommendation, he accepted a post as curator in the zoological department of the
Crossing of Greenland
Planning
The idea of an expedition across the Greenland icecap grew in Nansen's mind throughout his Bergen years. In 1887, after the submission of his
Nansen rejected the complex organisation and heavy manpower of other Arctic ventures, and instead planned his expedition for a small party of six. Supplies would be manhauled on specially designed lightweight sledges. Much of the equipment, including sleeping bags, clothing and cooking stoves, also needed to be designed from scratch.[21] These plans received a generally poor reception in the press;[22] one critic had no doubt that "if [the] scheme be attempted in its present form ... the chances are ten to one that he will ... uselessly throw his own and perhaps others' lives away".[23] The Norwegian parliament refused to provide financial support, believing that such a potentially risky undertaking should not be encouraged. The project was eventually launched with a donation from a Danish businessman, Augustin Gamél; the rest came mainly from small contributions from Nansen's countrymen, through a fundraising effort organised by students at the university.[24]
Despite the adverse publicity, Nansen received numerous applications from would-be adventurers. He wanted expert skiers, and attempted to recruit from the skiers of Telemark, but his approaches were rebuffed.
Expedition
The sealer
The expedition left Jason "in good spirits and with the highest hopes of a fortunate result."[27] Days of extreme frustration followed as they drifted south. Weather and sea conditions prevented them from reaching the shore. They spent most time camping on the ice itself—it was too dangerous to launch the boats.
By 29 July, they found themselves 380 kilometres (240 mi) south of the point where they left the ship. That day they finally reached land but were too far south to begin the crossing. Nansen ordered the team back into the boats after a brief rest and to begin rowing north.[28] The party battled northward along the coast through the ice floes for the next 12 days. They encountered a large Inuit encampment on the first day, near Cape Steen Bille.[29] Occasional contacts with the nomadic native population continued as the journey progressed.
The party reached
Over the next few days, the party struggled to ascend. The inland ice had a treacherous surface with many hidden
They continued climbing until 11 September and reached a height of 2,719 metres (8,921 ft) above sea level. Temperatures on the icecap summit of the icecap dropped to −45 °C (−49 °F) at night. From then on the downward slope made travelling easier. Yet, the terrain was rugged and the weather remained hostile.[34] Progress was slow: fresh snowfalls made dragging the sledges like pulling them through sand.
On 26 September, they battled their way down the edge of a fjord westward towards Godthaab. Sverdrup constructed a makeshift boat out of parts of the sledges, willows, and their tent. Three days later, Nansen and Sverdrup began the last stage of the journey; rowing down the fjord.[35]
On 3 October, they reached
The rest of the team arrived in Godthaab on 12 October. Nansen soon learned no ship was likely to call at Godthaab until the following spring. Still, they were able to send letters back to Norway via a boat leaving
Interlude and marriage
Hvidbjørnen reached Copenhagen on 21 May 1889. News of the crossing had preceded its arrival, and Nansen and his companions were feted as heroes. This welcome, however, was dwarfed by the reception in Christiania a week later, when crowds of between thirty and forty thousand—a third of the city's population—thronged the streets as the party made its way to the first of a series of receptions. The interest and enthusiasm generated by the expedition's achievement led directly to the formation that year of the Norwegian Geographical Society.[39]
Nansen accepted the position of curator of the Royal Frederick University's zoology collection, a post which carried a salary but involved no duties; the university was satisfied by the association with the explorer's name.
The RGS president, Sir
On 11 August 1889 Nansen announced his engagement to
Fram expedition
Planning
Nansen first began to consider the possibility of reaching the North Pole after reading meteorologist
The idea remained fixated in Nansen's mind for the next couple of years.[44] He developed a detailed plan for a polar venture after his triumphant return from Greenland. He made his idea public in February 1890, at a meeting of the newly formed Norwegian Geographical Society. Previous expeditions, he argued, approached the North Pole from the west and failed because they were working against the prevailing east–west current; the secret was to work with the current.
A workable plan would require a sturdy and manoeuvrable small ship, capable of carrying fuel and provisions for twelve men for five years. This ship would enter the ice pack close to the approximate location of Jeannette's sinking, drifting west with the current towards the pole and beyond it—eventually reaching the sea between Greenland and Spitsbergen.[43]
Experienced polar explorers were dismissive: Adolphus Greely called the idea "an illogical scheme of self-destruction".[45] Equally dismissive were Sir Allen Young, a veteran of the searches for Franklin's lost expedition,[46] and Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, who had sailed to the Antarctic on the Ross expedition.[47][48] Nansen still managed to secure a grant from the Norwegian parliament after an impassioned speech. Additional funding was secured through a national appeal for private donations.[44]
Preparations
Nansen chose naval engineer Colin Archer to design and build a ship. Archer designed an extraordinarily sturdy vessel with an intricate system of crossbeams and braces of the toughest oak timbers. Its rounded hull was designed to push the ship upwards when beset by pack ice. Speed and manoeuvrability were to be secondary to its ability as a safe and warm shelter during their predicted confinement.[44]
The length-to-beam ratio—39-metre-long (128 ft) and 11-metre-wide (36 ft)—gave it a stubby appearance,[49] justified by Archer: "A ship that is built with exclusive regard to its suitability for [Nansen's] object must differ essentially from any known vessel."[50] It was christened Fram and launched on 6 October 1892.[49]
Nansen selected a party of twelve from thousands of applicants. Otto Sverdrup, who took part in Nansen's earlier Greenland expedition was appointed as the expedition's second-in-command.[51] Competition was so fierce that army lieutenant and dog-driving expert Hjalmar Johansen signed on as ship's stoker, the only position still available.[51][52]
Into the ice
The crew also experienced the dead water phenomenon, where a ship's forward progress is impeded by friction caused by a layer of fresh water lying on top of heavier salt water.[55] Nevertheless, Cape Chelyuskin, the most northerly point of the Eurasian continental mass, was passed on 10 September.
Heavy pack ice was sighted ten days later at around latitude 78°N, as Fram approached the area in which USS Jeannette was crushed. Nansen followed the line of the pack northwards to a position recorded as 78°49′N 132°53′E / 78.817°N 132.883°E, before ordering engines stopped and the rudder raised. From this point Fram's drift began.[56] The first weeks in the ice were frustrating, as the drift moved unpredictably; sometimes north, sometimes south.
By 19 November, Fram's latitude was south of that at which she had entered the ice.[57] Only after the turn of the year, in January 1894, did the northerly direction become generally settled; the 80°N mark was finally passed on 22 March.[58] Nansen calculated that, at this rate, it might take the ship five years to reach the pole.[59] As the ship's northerly progress continued at a rate rarely above a kilometre and a half per day, Nansen began privately to consider a new plan—a dog sledge journey towards the pole.[59] With this in mind, he began to practice dog-driving, making many experimental journeys over the ice.
In November, Nansen announced his plan: when the ship passed latitude 83°N, he and Hjalmar Johansen would leave the ship with the dogs and make for the pole while Fram, under Sverdrup, continued its drift until it emerged from the ice in the North Atlantic. After reaching the pole, Nansen and Johansen would make for the nearest known land, the recently discovered and sketchily mapped Franz Josef Land. They would then cross to Spitzbergen where they would find a ship to take them home.[60]
The crew spent the rest of the winter of 1894 preparing clothing and equipment for the forthcoming sledge journey.
Dash for the pole
With the ship's latitude at 84°4′N and after two false starts,[64] Nansen and Johansen began their journey on 14 March 1895.[65] Nansen allowed 50 days to cover the 356 nautical miles (660 km; 410 mi) to the pole, an average daily journey of seven nautical miles (13 km; 8 mi). After a week of travel, a sextant observation indicated they averaged nine nautical miles (17 km; 10 mi) per day, which put them ahead of schedule.[66] However, uneven surfaces made skiing more difficult, and their speeds slowed. They also realised they were marching against a southerly drift, and that distances travelled did not necessarily equate to distance progressed.[67]
On 3 April, Nansen began to doubt whether the pole was attainable. Unless their speed improved, their food would not last them to the pole and back to Franz Josef Land.[67] He confided in his diary: "I have become more and more convinced we ought to turn before time."[68] Four days later, after making camp, he observed the way ahead was "... a veritable chaos of iceblocks stretching as far as the horizon." Nansen recorded their latitude as 86°13′6″N—almost three degrees beyond the previous record—and decided to turn around and head back south.[69]
Retreat
At first Nansen and Johansen made good progress south, but suffered a serious setback on 13 April, when in his eagerness to break camp, they had forgotten to wind their chronometers, which made it impossible to calculate their longitude and accurately navigate to Franz Josef Land. They restarted the watches based on Nansen's guess they were at 86°E. From then on they were uncertain of their true position.[70] The tracks of an Arctic fox were observed towards the end of April. It was the first trace of a living creature other than their dogs since they left Fram.[71] They soon saw bear tracks and by the end of May saw evidence of nearby seals, gulls and whales.
On 31 May, Nansen calculated they were only 50 nautical miles (93 km; 58 mi) from Cape Fligely, Franz Josef Land's northernmost point.[72] Travel conditions worsened as increasingly warmer weather caused the ice to break up. On 22 June, the pair decided to rest on a stable ice floe while they repaired their equipment and gathered strength for the next stage of their journey. They remained on the floe for a month.[73]
The day after leaving this camp, Nansen recorded: "At last the marvel has come to pass—land, land, and after we had almost given up our belief in it!"[74] Whether this still-distant land was Franz Josef Land or a new discovery they did not know—they had only a rough sketch map to guide them.[n 2] The edge of the pack ice was reached on 6 August and they shot the last of their dogs—the weakest of which they killed regularly to feed the others since 24 April. The two kayaks were lashed together, a sail was raised, and they made for the land.[76]
It soon became clear this land was part of an archipelago. As they moved southwards, Nansen tentatively identified a headland as Cape Felder on the western edge of Franz Josef Land. Towards the end of August, as the weather grew colder and travel became increasingly difficult, Nansen decided to camp for the winter.[77] In a sheltered cove, with stones and moss for building materials, the pair erected a hut which was to be their home for the next eight months.[78] With ready supplies of bear, walrus and seal to keep their larder stocked, their principal enemy was not hunger but inactivity.[79] After muted Christmas and New Year celebrations, in slowly improving weather, they began to prepare to leave their refuge, but it was 19 May 1896 before they were able to resume their journey.[80]
Rescue and return
On 17 June, during a stop for repairs after the kayaks had been attacked by a
Johansen was picked up and the pair were taken to Cape Flora where, during the following weeks, they recuperated from their ordeal. Nansen later wrote that he could "still scarcely grasp" their sudden change of fortune;[83] had it not been for the walrus attack that caused the delay, the two parties might have been unaware of each other's existence.[81]
On 7 August, Nansen and Johansen boarded Jackson's supply ship Windward, and sailed for Vardø where they arrived on the 13th. They were greeted by Hans Mohn, the originator of the polar drift theory, who was in the town by chance.[84] The world was quickly informed by telegram of Nansen's safe return,[85] but as yet there was no news of Fram.
Taking the weekly mail steamer south, Nansen and Johansen reached Hammerfest on 18 August, where they learned that Fram had been sighted. She had emerged from the ice north and west of Spitsbergen, as Nansen had predicted, and was now on her way to Tromsø. She had not passed over the pole, nor exceeded Nansen's northern mark.[86] Without delay Nansen and Johansen sailed for Tromsø, where they were reunited with their comrades.[87]
The homeward voyage to Christiania was a series of triumphant receptions at every port. On 9 September, Fram was escorted into Christiania's harbour and welcomed by the largest crowds the city had ever seen.[88] The crew were received by King Oscar, and Nansen, reunited with family, remained at the palace for several days as special guests. Tributes arrived from all over the world; typical was that from the British mountaineer Edward Whymper, who wrote that Nansen had made "almost as great an advance as has been accomplished by all other voyages in the nineteenth century put together".[87]
National figure
Scientist and polar oracle
Nansen's first task on his return was to write his account of the voyage. This he did remarkably quickly, producing 300,000 words of Norwegian text by November 1896; the English translation, titled Farthest North, was ready in January 1897. The book was an instant success, and secured Nansen's long-term financial future.[89] Nansen included without comment the one significant adverse criticism of his conduct, that of Greely, who had written in Harper's Weekly on Nansen's decision to leave Fram and strike for the pole: "It passes comprehension how Nansen could have thus deviated from the most sacred duty devolving on the commander of a naval expedition."[90]
During the 20 years following his return from the Arctic, Nansen devoted most of his energies to scientific work. In 1897 he accepted a professorship in zoology at the
In 1900, Nansen became director of the Christiania-based International Laboratory for North Sea Research, and helped found the
Nansen was now considered an oracle by all would-be explorers of the north and south polar regions. Abruzzi had consulted him, as had the Belgian Adrien de Gerlache, each of whom took expeditions to the Antarctic.[97] Although Nansen refused to meet his own countryman and fellow-explorer Carsten Borchgrevink (whom he considered a fraud),[98] he gave advice to Robert Falcon Scott on polar equipment and transport, prior to the 1901–04 Discovery expedition. At one point Nansen seriously considered leading a South Pole expedition himself, and asked Colin Archer to design two ships. However, these plans remained on the drawing board.[99]
By 1901 Nansen's family had expanded considerably. A daughter, Liv, had been born just before Fram set out; a son, Kåre was born in 1897 followed by a daughter, Irmelin, in 1900 and a second son Odd in 1901.[100] The family home, which Nansen had built in 1891 from the profits of his Greenland expedition book,[101] was now too small. Nansen acquired a plot of land in the Lysaker district and built, substantially to his own design, a large and imposing house which combined some of the characteristics of an English manor house with features from the Italian renaissance.
The house was ready for occupation by April 1902; Nansen called it Polhøgda (in English "polar heights"), and it remained his home for the rest of his life. A fifth and final child, son Asmund, was born at Polhøgda in 1903.[102]
Politician and diplomat
The union between Norway and Sweden, imposed by the Great Powers in 1814, had been under considerable strain through the 1890s, the chief issue in question being Norway's rights to its own consular service.[103] Nansen, although not by inclination a politician, had spoken out on the issue on several occasions in defence of Norway's interests.[104] As of 1898 Nansen was among the contributors of Ringeren, an anti-Union magazine established by Sigurd Ibsen.[105] It seemed, early in the 20th century that agreement between the two countries might be possible, but hopes were dashed when negotiations broke down in February 1905. The Norwegian government fell, and was replaced by one led by Christian Michelsen, whose programme was one of separation from Sweden.[103]
In February and March Nansen published a series of newspaper articles which placed him firmly in the separatist camp. The new prime minister wanted Nansen in the cabinet, but Nansen had no political ambitions.[106] However, at Michelsen's request he went to Berlin and then to London where, in a letter to The Times, he presented Norway's legal case for a separate consular service to the English-speaking world. On 17 May 1905, Norway's Constitution Day, Nansen addressed a large crowd in Christiania, saying: "Now have all ways of retreat been closed. Now remains only one path, the way forward, perhaps through difficulties and hardships, but forward for our country, to a free Norway".[107] He also wrote a book, Norway and the Union with Sweden, to promote Norway's case abroad.[108]
On 23 May the Storting passed the Consulate Act establishing a separate consular service. King Oscar refused his assent; on 27 May the Norwegian cabinet resigned, but the king would not recognise this step. On 7 June the Storting unilaterally announced that the union with Sweden was dissolved. In a tense situation the Swedish government agreed to Norway's request that the dissolution should be put to a referendum of the Norwegian people.
In April 1906 Nansen was appointed Norway's first
Oceanographer and traveller
After a period of mourning, Nansen returned to London. He had been persuaded by his government to rescind his resignation until after King Edward's state visit to Norway in April 1908. His formal retirement from the diplomatic service was dated 1 May 1908, the same day on which his university professorship was changed from zoology to oceanography. This new designation reflected the general character of Nansen's more recent scientific interests.[114]
In 1905, he had supplied the Swedish physicist
In 1909 Nansen combined with Bjørn Helland-Hansen to publish an academic paper, The Norwegian Sea: its Physical Oceanography, based on the Michael Sars voyage of 1900.[116] Nansen had by now retired from polar exploration, the decisive step being his release of Fram to fellow Norwegian Roald Amundsen, who was planning a North Pole expedition.[117] When Amundsen made his controversial change of plan and set out for the South Pole, Nansen stood by him.[118][n 3]
Between 1910 and 1914, Nansen participated in several oceanographic voyages. In 1910, aboard the Norwegian naval vessel Fridtjof, he carried out researches in the northern Atlantic,
At the request of the Royal Geographical Society, Nansen began work on a study of Arctic discoveries, which developed into a two-volume history of the exploration of the northern regions up to the beginning of the 16th century. This was published in 1911 as Nord i Tåkeheimen ("In Northern Mists").[120] That year he renewed an acquaintance with Kathleen Scott, wife of Robert Falcon Scott, whose Terra Nova Expedition had sailed for Antarctica in 1910.
Biographer Roland Huntford has claimed that Nansen and Kathleen Scott had a brief affair.[123] Louisa Young, in her biography of Lady Scott, rejects the claim.[124] Many women were attracted to Nansen, and he had a reputation as a womaniser.[125] His personal life was troubled around this time; in January 1913 he received news of the suicide of Hjalmar Johansen, who had returned in disgrace from Amundsen's successful South Pole expedition.[126] In March 1913, Nansen's youngest son Asmund died after a long illness.[121]
In the summer of 1913, Nansen travelled to the Kara Sea, by the invitation of
Statesman and humanitarian
League of Nations
On the outbreak of war in 1914, Norway declared its neutrality, alongside Sweden and Denmark. Nansen was appointed as the president of the Norwegian Union of Defence, but had few official duties, and continued with his professional work as far as circumstances permitted.[129] As the war progressed, the loss of Norway's overseas trade led to acute shortages of food in the country, which became critical in April 1917, when the United States entered the war and placed extra restrictions on international trade. Nansen was dispatched to Washington by the Norwegian government; after months of discussion, he secured food and other supplies in return for the introduction of a rationing system. When his government hesitated over the deal, he signed the agreement on his own initiative.[130]
Within a few months of the war's end in November 1918, a draft agreement had been accepted by the
In April 1920, at the League's request, Nansen began organising the repatriation of around half a million prisoners of war, stranded in various parts of the world. Of these, 300,000 were in Russia which, gripped by revolution and civil war, had little interest in their fate.[10] Nansen was able to report to the Assembly in November 1920 that around 200,000 men had been returned to their homes. "Never in my life", he said, "have I been brought into touch with so formidable an amount of suffering."[134]
Nansen continued this work for a further two years until, in his final report to the Assembly in 1922, he was able to state that 427,886 prisoners had been repatriated to around 30 different countries. In paying tribute to his work, the responsible committee recorded that the story of his efforts "would contain tales of heroic endeavour worthy of those in the accounts of the crossing of Greenland and the great Arctic voyage."[135]
Nansen Mission
The Nansen Mission is the colloquial term used by inhabitants of former
Russian famine
Even before this work was complete, Nansen was involved in a further humanitarian effort. On 1 September 1921, prompted by the British delegate
At the same time he tried to tackle the urgent problem of
"There was in various transatlantic countries such an abundance of maize, that the farmers had to burn it as fuel in their railway engines. At the same time, the ships in Europe were idle, for there were no cargoes. Simultaneously there were thousands, nay millions of unemployed. All this, while thirty million people in the Volga region—not far away and easily reached by our ships—were allowed to starve and die. The politicians of the world at large, except in the United States, were trying to find an excuse for doing nothing on the pretext that it was the Russians' own fault – a result of the Bolshevik system."[142]
A major problem impeding Nansen's work on behalf of refugees was that most of them lacked documentary proof of identity or nationality. Without legal status in their country of refuge, their lack of papers meant they were unable to go anywhere else. To overcome this, Nansen devised a document that became known as the "Nansen passport", a form of identity for stateless persons that was in time recognised by more than 50 governments, and which allowed refugees to cross borders legally. Although the passport was created initially for refugees from Russia, it was extended to cover other groups.[143]
While attending the
Greco-Turkish resettlement
After the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, Nansen travelled to Constantinople to negotiate the resettlement of hundreds of thousands of refugees, mainly ethnic Greeks who had fled from Turkey after the defeat of the Greek Army. The impoverished Greek state was unable to take them in,[10] and so Nansen devised a scheme for a population exchange whereby half a million Turks in Greece were returned to Turkey, with full financial compensation, while further loans facilitated the absorption of the refugee Greeks into their homeland.[146] Despite some controversy over the principle of a population exchange,[143] the plan was implemented successfully over a period of several years.
Armenian genocide
From 1925 onwards, Nansen devoted much time trying to help Armenian refugees, victims of
After visiting the region, Nansen presented the Assembly with a modest plan for the irrigation of 360 square kilometres (140 sq mi) on which 15,000 refugees could be settled.[149] The plan ultimately failed, because even with Nansen's unremitting advocacy the money to finance the scheme was not forthcoming. Despite this failure, his reputation among the Armenian people remains high.[10]
Nansen wrote Armenia and the Near East (1923) wherein he describes the plight of the Armenians in the wake of losing its independence to the Soviet Union.[150] The book was translated into many languages. After his visit to Armenia, Nansen wrote two additional books: Across Armenia (1927) and Through the Caucasus to the Volga (1930).[151]
Within the League's Assembly, Nansen spoke out on many issues besides those related to refugees. He believed that the Assembly gave the smaller countries such as Norway a "unique opportunity for speaking in the councils of the world."[152] He believed that the extent of the League's success in reducing armaments would be the greatest test of its credibility.[153] He was a signatory to the Slavery Convention of 25 September 1926, which sought to outlaw the use of forced labour.[154] He supported a settlement of the post-war reparations issue and championed Germany's membership of the League, which was granted in September 1926 after intensive preparatory work by Nansen.[148]
Later life
On 17 January 1919 Nansen married Sigrun Munthe, a long-time friend with whom he had had a love affair in 1905, while Eva was still alive. The marriage was resented by the Nansen children, and proved unhappy; an acquaintance writing of them in the 1920s said Nansen appeared unbearably miserable and Sigrun steeped in hate.[155]
Nansen's League of Nations commitments through the 1920s meant that he was mostly absent from Norway, and was able to devote little time to scientific work. Nevertheless, he continued to publish occasional papers.[156] He entertained the hope that he might travel to the North Pole by airship, but could not raise sufficient funding.[157] In any event he was forestalled in this ambition by Amundsen, who flew over the pole in Umberto Nobile's airship Norge in May 1926.[158] Two years later Nansen broadcast a memorial oration to Amundsen, who had disappeared in the Arctic while organising a rescue party for Nobile whose airship had crashed during a second polar voyage. Nansen said of Amundsen: "He found an unknown grave under the clear sky of the icy world, with the whirring of the wings of eternity through space."[159]
In 1926 Nansen was elected Rector of the University of St Andrews in Scotland, the first foreigner to hold this largely honorary position. He used the occasion of his inaugural address to review his life and philosophy, and to deliver a call to the youth of the next generation. He ended:
We all have a Land of Beyond to seek in our life—what more can we ask? Our part is to find the trail that leads to it. A long trail, a hard trail, maybe; but the call comes to us, and we have to go. Rooted deep in the nature of every one of us is the spirit of adventure, the call of the wild—vibrating under all our actions, making life deeper and higher and nobler.[160]
Nansen largely avoided involvement in domestic Norwegian politics, but in 1924 he was persuaded by the long-retired former Prime Minister Christian Michelsen to take part in a new anti-communist political grouping, the Fatherland League. There were fears in Norway that should the Marxist-oriented Labour Party gain power it would introduce a revolutionary programme. At the inaugural rally of the League in Oslo (as Christiania had now been renamed), Nansen declared: "To talk of the right of revolution in a society with full civil liberty, universal suffrage, equal treatment for everyone ... [is] idiotic nonsense."[161]
Following continued turmoil between the centre-right parties, there was even an independent petition in 1926 gaining some momentum that proposed for Nansen to head a centre-right national unity government on a balanced budget program, an idea he did not reject.[162] He was the headline speaker at the single largest Fatherland League rally with 15,000 attendees in Tønsberg in 1928.[163] In 1929 he went on his final tour for the League on the ship Stella Polaris, holding speeches from Bergen to Hammerfest.[164]
In between his various duties and responsibilities, Nansen had continued to take skiing holidays when he could. In February 1930, aged 68, he took a short break in the mountains with two old friends, who noted that Nansen was slower than usual and appeared to tire easily. On his return to Oslo he was laid up for several months, with
Nansen was a close friend of a clergyman named Wilhelm. Nansen was an
Death and legacy
Nansen died of a heart attack on 13 May 1930. He was given a non-religious
In his lifetime and thereafter, Nansen received honours and recognition from many countries.[170] Among the many tributes paid to him subsequently was that of Lord Robert Cecil, a fellow League of Nations delegate, who spoke of the range of Nansen's work, done with no regard for his own interests or health: "Every good cause had his support. He was a fearless peacemaker, a friend of justice, an advocate always for the weak and suffering."[171]
Nansen was a pioneer and innovator in many fields. As a young man he embraced the revolution in skiing methods that transformed it from a means of winter travel to a universal sport, and quickly became one of Norway's leading skiers. He was later able to apply this expertise to the problems of polar travel, in both his Greenland and his Fram expeditions.
He invented the "Nansen sledge" with broad, ski-like runners, the "Nansen cooker" to improve the heat efficiency of the standard spirit stoves then in use, and the layer principle in polar clothing, whereby the traditionally heavy, awkward garments were replaced by layers of lightweight material. In science, Nansen is recognised both as one of the founders of modern neurology,[172][173] and as a significant contributor to early oceanographical science, in particular for his work in establishing the Central Oceanographic Laboratory in Christiania.[174]
Through his work on behalf of the League of Nations, Nansen helped to establish the principle of international responsibility for refugees.[175] Immediately after his death the League set up the Nansen International Office for Refugees, a semi-autonomous body under the League's authority, to continue his work. The Nansen Office faced great difficulties, in part arising from the large numbers of refugees from the European dictatorships during the 1930s.[176] Nevertheless, it secured the agreement of 14 countries (including a reluctant Great Britain)[177] to the Refugee Convention of 1933.
It also helped to repatriate 10,000 Armenians to
Numerous geographical features bear his name: the
A 1968 Norwegian/Soviet biographical film
The Royal Norwegian Navy launched the first of a series of five Fridtjof Nansen-class frigates in 2004, with HNoMS Fridtjof Nansen as its lead ship.[189] Cruise ship MS Fridtjof Nansen was launched in 2020.[190][191]
Orders and decorations
- Norway:
- Sweden: Vega Medal, 1889[196]
- Austria-Hungary: Grand Cross of the Imperial Austrian Order of Franz Joseph, 1898[197]
- Merit Order of Saint Michael[195]
- Denmark:[198]
- Medal of Merit, in Gold and with Crown, 1897
- Knight of the Order of the Dannebrog, 24 May 1889
- France:
- Grand Gold Medal of Exploration and Journeys of Discovery, 1897[199]
- Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour[195]
- Kingdom of Italy:[195]
- Grand Officer of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
- Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy
- Kingdom of Prussia:
- Carl-Ritter Medal (Silver), 1889[200]
- 1878 Alexander von Humboldt Medal (Gold), 1897[201]
- Russian Empire:
- Constantine Medal, 1907[202]
- Knight of the Imperial Order of Saint Stanislaus, 1st Class[195]
- United Kingdom:
- Patron's Medal, 1891
- Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 13 November 1906[203]
- United States: Cullum Geographical Medal, 1897[204]
Works
- Paa ski over Grønland. En skildring af Den norske Grønlands-ekspedition 1888–89. Aschehoug, Kristiania 1890. Tr. as The First Crossing of Greenland, 1890. (Reviewed in The Scientific Results of Dr. Nansen’s Expedition by James Geikie The Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1891).[205]
- Eskimoliv. Aschehoug, Kristiania 1891. Tr. as Eskimo Life, (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1893).[206]
- Fram over Polhavet. Den norske polarfærd 1893–1896. Aschehoug, Kristiania 1897. Tr. as Farthest North, 1897.
- The Norwegian North Polar Expedition, 1893–1896; Scientific Results (6 volumes, 1901).
- Norge og foreningen med Sverige. Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Kristiania 1905. Tr. as Norway and the Union With Sweden, 1905.
- Northern Waters: Captain Roald Amundsen's Oceanographic Observations in the Arctic Seas in 1901. Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Kristiania, 1906.
- Nord i tåkeheimen. Utforskningen av jordens nordlige strøk i tidlige tider. Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Kristiania 1911. Tr. as In Northern Mists: Arctic Exploration in Early Times, 1911.
- Gjennem Sibirien. Jacob Dybwads forlag, Kristiania, 1914. Tr. as Through Siberia the Land of the Future, 1914.
- Frilufts-liv. Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Kristiania, 1916.
- En ferd til Spitsbergen. Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Kristiania, 1920.
- Rusland og freden. Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Kristiania, 1923.
- Blant sel og bjørn. Min første Ishavs-ferd. Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Kristiania, 1924.
- Gjennem Armenia. Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Oslo, 1927.
- Gjennem Kaukasus til Volga. Jacob Dybwads Forlag, Oslo, 1929. Tr. as Through The Caucasus To The Volga, 1931.
- English translations
- Through Siberia, the Land of the Future. London: William Heinemann. 1914.
- Armenia and the Near East. Publisher: J.C. & A.L. Fawcett, Inc., New York, 1928.
See also
Notes
- ^ Members of Greely's 1881–1884 expedition had achieved this latitude travelling north from Greenland. Of the original party of 25, only Greely and six others survived the expedition.[63]
- Julius Payer, and was only partially explored and mapped at this stage.[75]
- ^ Amundsen kept his South Pole intentions secret until Fram was beyond contact. He reached the South Pole on 14 December 1911, five weeks before Robert Falcon Scott, who died with his polar party on the return journey. In public Nansen praised Amundsen; in private, according to biographer Roland Huntford, he was "sick at heart".[119]
References
Inline citations
- ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
- PMID 9719772.
- ^ Brøgger and Rolfsen, pp. 1–7, 10–15
- ^ Brøgger and Rolfsen, pp. 8–9
- ^ a b Reynolds, pp. 11–14
- ^ a b c Huntford, pp. 7–12
- ^ Scott, pp. 9–10
- ^ Scott, pp. 11–12
- ^ Huntford, pp. 16–17
- ^ a b c d e f g h Ryne, Linn. "Fridtjof Nansen: Man of many facets". Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 18–19
- ^ Scott, p. 15
- ^ a b c Huntford, pp. 21–27
- ^ Reynolds, p. 20
- ^ Huntford, pp. 28–29
- ^ Reynolds, p. 25
- ^ Huntford, pp. 65–69
- ^ Huntford, pp. 73–75
- ^ Reynolds, pp. 44–45
- ^ Scott, pp. 44–46
- ^ Huntford, pp. 79–81
- ^ Scott, p. 46
- ^ Nansen (1890), p. 8
- ^ Nansen (1890), p. vii
- ^ Huntford, p. 78
- ^ a b Huntford, pp. 87–92
- ^ a b Huntford 2001, pp. 97–99.
- ^ Reynolds 1949, pp. 48–52.
- ^ Huntford 2001, pp. 105–110.
- ^ Scott, p. 84.
- ^ Huntford 2001, pp. 115–116.
- ^ Nansen 1890, p. 250.
- ^ Nansen 1890, pp. 267–270.
- ^ Reynolds 1949, pp. 61–62.
- ^ Reynolds 1949, pp. 64–67.
- ^ Nansen 1890, p. 363.
- ^ Reynolds 1949, pp. 69–70.
- ^ Nansen 1890, pp. 442–444.
- ^ a b c Huntford, pp. 156–163
- ^ a b Reynolds, pp. 71–72
- ^ Fleming, p. 238
- ^ a b Huntford, pp. 168–173
- ^ a b Nansen 1897, vol. I, pp. 14–38.
- ^ a b c Fleming, pp. 239–240.
- ^ Berton, p. 489.
- ^ Nansen 1897, vol. I, pp. 42–45.
- ^ Berton, p. 492.
- ^ Nansen 1897, vol. I, pp. 47–48.
- ^ a b Huntford, pp. 192–197.
- ^ Nansen 1897, vol. I, p. 60.
- ^ a b Nansen 1897, vol. I, pp. 78–81.
- ^ a b Huntford, pp. 222–223.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 206–207.
- ^ Scott, pp. 128–135.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 234–237.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 238–240.
- ^ Huntford, p. 246.
- ^ Nansen 1897, vol. I, p. 378.
- ^ a b Huntford, pp. 257–258.
- ^ Reynolds, pp. 105–108.
- ^ Fleming, pp. 246–247.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 275–278.
- ^ Fleming, pp. 232–233.
- ^ Nansen 1897, vol. II, p. 86.
- ^ Nansen 1897, vol. II, p. 112.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 308–313.
- ^ a b Fleming, p. 248.
- ^ Nansen 1897, vol. II, p. 127.
- ^ Nansen 1897, vol. II, p. 142.
- ^ Fleming, p. 249.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 334–336.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 343–346.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 346–351.
- ^ Nansen 1897, vol. II, p. 276
- ^ Nansen 1897, vol. II, p. 518.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 365–368.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 375–379.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 378–383.
- ^ Fleming, p. 259.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 403–404.
- ^ a b Fleming, pp. 261–262.
- ^ Jackson, pp. 165–166.
- ^ Nansen 1897, vol. II, p. 456.
- ^ Nansen 1897, vol. II, pp. 506–507.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 433–434
- ^ Huntford, pp. 435–436.
- ^ a b Fleming, pp. 264–265.
- ^ Huntford, p. 438.
- ^ Huntford 2001, pp. 441–442.
- ^ Nansen 1897, vol. 1 pp. 51–52.
- ^ Huntford 2001, p. 452.
- ^ Reynolds 1949, pp. 159–160.
- ^ Reynolds 1949, p. 165.
- ^ Huntford 2001, p. 467.
- ^ Fleming 2002, p. 323.
- ^ Huntford 2001, p. 468.
- ^ Huntford 2001, pp. 451–452, 463.
- ^ Huntford 2001, p. 463.
- ^ Huntford 2001, pp. 464–465
- ^ Huntford 2001, pp. 200, 452, 467, 477.
- ^ Huntford 2001, pp. 177–178.
- ^ Huntford 2001, pp. 477–478.
- ^ a b c d "Norway, Sweden & union". National Library of Norway. 2003. Retrieved 31 July 2010.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 481–484
- JSTOR 40920149.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 489–490
- ^ Scott, p. 285
- ^ Reynolds, p. 147
- ^ Leiren, Terje (Spring 2005). "A Century of Norwegian Independence". The Scandinavian Review: 7. Archived from the original on 11 September 2016. Retrieved 2 August 2005. (subscription required)
- ^ a b Scott, pp. 202–205
- S2CID 246004823.
- ^ Huntford, p. 551
- ^ Huntford, pp. 552–554
- ^ Huntford, pp. 555–556.
- ^ Huntford, p. 476.
- ^ Reynolds, pp. 177–178.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 548–549.
- ^ Huntford, p. 564.
- ^ Huntford, p. 569.
- ^ a b Reynolds, pp. 179–184.
- ^ a b Reynolds, pp. 184–189.
- ^ Spitz (ed.), p. 421.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 566–568.
- ^ A Great Task of Happiness. Macmillan. 1994.
- ^ Abrams, p. 102.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 571–573.
- Wikidata Q123378908
- ^ Reynolds, pp. 190–203.
- ^ a b Reynolds, p. 204.
- ^ Reynolds, p. 214.
- ^ Pollock, pp. 88–89.
- ^ Huntford, p. 583.
- ^ Reynolds, p. 216.
- ^ Reynolds, p. 221.
- ^ Reynolds, pp. 222–223.
- JSTOR 48611546.
- ^ a b "НАНСЕНА МІСІЯ". resource.history.org.ua. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
- JSTOR 45054673.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 599–603.
- (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2017.
- ^ Reynolds, pp. 224–229.
- ^ Reynolds, p. 230.
- ^ a b Gibney & Harrison, pp. 441–442.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 649–650.
- ^ The Nobel Peace Prize 1922".
- ^ Reynolds, p. 241.
- ^ "Armenian Genocide" Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, United Human Rights Council. Retrieved 18 August 2010.
- ^ a b Huntford, pp. 659–660.
- ^ Reynolds, p. 262.
- ^ Abalyan, Karine (17 October 2011). "Fridtjof Nansen and the Armenians". Massis Post.
- ^ "Fridtjof Nansen". ArmeniaHouse.
- ^ Scott, p. 230.
- ^ Reynolds, p. 247.
- ^ "Slavery Convention 1926", The Anti-Slavery Society, 2003. Retrieved 18 August 2010.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 598, 664
- ^ Scott, p. 298
- ^ Fleming, p. 421
- ^ Fleming, pp. 405–407
- ^ Huntford, pp. 663–664
- ^ Reynolds, pp. 272–274
- ^ Huntford, pp. 657–658
- ^ Norland, pp. 54–62
- ^ Norland, pp. 112–115.
- ^ Norland p. 151.
- ^ Scott, p. 255
- ^ Huntford, p. 665
- ISBN 978-9004202986– via Google Books.
- ISBN 9788281691919.
- ^ Scott, p. 256.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 156, 179, 445–461.
- ^ Reynolds, p. 276.
- PMID 12640078. (subscription required)
- PMID 14038096.
- ^ Huntford, pp. 475–477.
- JSTOR 1006535.
- ^ a b "The Nobel Prize in Peace 1938: Nansen International Office for Refugees". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 6 August 2010.
- .(subscription required)
- ^ "Nansen Refugee Award". The United Nations Refugee Agency. Retrieved 6 August 2010.
- .
- ^ "Mount Nansen". Government of Yukon, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
- ^ "Nansen, Mount". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ Amundsen, vol. 2, p. 30.
- ^ "Nansen Island". Scott Polar Research Institute. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
- ISBN 9783540002383.
- ^ Whitaker, p. 235.
- ^ Moscow to honor Norwegian polar explorer and diplomat Fridtjof Nansen, Russkiy MIR Foundation, 27 October 2011, retrieved 18 November 2017.
- ^ "About the Fridtjof Nansen Institute". The Fridtjof Nansen Institute. Archived from the original on 17 August 2010. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ "Bare et liv – Historien om Fridtjof Nansen (1968)". IMDb. 10 October 1968. Retrieved 18 August 2010. (in Norwegian)
- ^ "HNoMS Fridtjof Nansen (F310) Guided Missile Frigate (2006)". MilitaryFactory.com. 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
- ^ "Two New Expedition Ships to be Named after Polar Heroes".
- ^ "MS Fridtjof Nansen".
- ^ "Den kongelige norske Sanct Olavs Orden", Norges Statskalender (in Norwegian), 1890, pp. 633–634 – via runeberg.org
- ^ "Den kongelige norske Sanct Olavs Orden", Norges Statskalender (in Norwegian), 1910, pp. 907–908 – via hathitrust.org
- ^ "Den kongelige norske Sanct Olavs Orden", Norges Statskalender for Aaret 1930 (in Norwegian), Oslo: Forlagt av H. Aschehoug & Co. (w. Nygaard), 1930, pp. 995–996 – via runeberg.org
- ^ a b c d e f "Universitetet", Norges Statskalender (in Norwegian), 1922, pp. 211–212 – via hathitrust.org
- ^ "Tidigare medaljörer" (PDF) (in Swedish). Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography. August 2018. Retrieved 3 August 2019.
- ^ "Ritter-Orden", Hof- und Staatshandbuch der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie (in German), 1918, p. 262
- ^ Bille-Hansen, A. C.; Holck, Harald, eds. (1929) [1st pub.:1801]. Statshaandbog for Kongeriget Danmark for Aaret 1929 [State Manual of the Kingdom of Denmark for the Year 1929] (PDF). Kongelig Dansk Hof- og Statskalender (in Danish). Copenhagen: J.H. Schultz A.-S. Universitetsbogtrykkeri. p. 137. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2021 – via da:DIS Danmark.
- ^ "GRANDE MÉDAILLE D'OR DES EXPLORATIONS ET VOYAGES DE DÉCOUVERTE (in French)". Société de géographie. Archived from the original on 6 December 2014. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
- ^ "Sitzung vom 1. Juni 1889", Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, 16: 254, 1889
- ^ "Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft", Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin (in German), 25: 55, 1898
- ^ "Constantine Medal of the IRGS". Russian Geographical Society. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
- ^ The London Gazette, issue 27968, p. 7722
- ^ American Geographical Society: Cullum Geographical Medal
- ^ Reproduced in Fragments of Earth Lore, by James Geikie (at XIII) page 382 https://www.gutenberg.org/files/47119/47119-h/47119-h.htm Retrieved 26 August 2023
- ^ Brown, Robert (4 November 1893). "Review of Eskimo Life by Fridtjof Nansen, translated by William Archer". The Academy. 44 (1122): 383–384.
Sources referenced
- Abrams, Irwin (2001). The Nobel Peace Prize and the Laureates: an illustrated biographical history 1901–2001. Nantucket MA: Watson Publishing International. ISBN 0-88135-388-4.
- Amundsen, Roald (1912). The South Pole, Vol. II. London: John Murray.
- ISBN 0-670-82491-7.
- Brøgger, Waldemar Christofer and Rolfsen, Nordahl (translated by William Archer (1896)). Fridtiof Nansen 1861–1893. New York. Longmans Green & Co.
- Fleming, Fergus (2002). Ninety Degrees North. London: Granta Publications. ISBN 1-86207-535-2.
- Gibney, Matthew J.; Harrison, Randall (2005). Immigration and Asylum from 1900 to the Present: Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576077962.
- ISBN 0-349-11492-7. (First published in 1997 by Gerald Duckworth)
- Jackson, Frederick (1935). The Lure of Unknown Lands. London: G. Bell and Sons.
- Nansen, Fridtjof (1890). The First Crossing of Greenland. Translated by Gepp, H.M. London: Longmans, Green.
- Nansen, Fridtjof (1897). Farthest North, Volume I. London: Archibald Constable & Co.
- Nansen, Fridtjof (1897). Farthest North, Volume II. London: Archibald Constable & Co.
- Norland, Andreas (1973). Hårde tider: Fedrelandslaget i norsk politikk. Oslo: Dreyer. ISBN 978-8-20901-106-5. (in Norwegian)
- Pollock, Frederick (1920). The League of Nations. London: Stevens & Sons.
- Reynolds, E.E. (1949). Nansen. Harmondsworth (UK): Penguin Books.
- Scott, J.M. (1971). Fridtjof Nansen. Sheridan, Oregon: Heron Books.
- Spitz, Susan, ed. (2005). The American Heritage Science Dictionary. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-45504-3.
- Whitaker, Ewan A. (1999). Mapping and Naming the Moon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52162-248-6.
Further reading
- Jones, Max (1 March 2021). "Exploration, Celebrity, and the Making of a Transnational Hero: Fridtjof Nansen and the Fram Expedition". The Journal of Modern History. 93 (1): 68–108.
External links
- Works by Fridtjof Nansen at Biodiversity Heritage Library
- Works by Fridtjof Nansen at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Works by Fridtjof Nansen at Open Library
- Works by Fridtjof Nansen at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Fridtjof Nansen at Internet Archive
- Portrait of Fridtjof Nansen published on ICRC Library and Archives blog CROSS-files
- Newspaper clippings about Fridtjof Nansen in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
- Fridtjof Nansen Collection at Dartmouth College Library
- Fridtjof Nansen on Nobelprize.org including the Nobel Lecture. 19 December 1922 The Suffering People of Europe
- 4c1f9225-e0ff-4370-bfe8-494a6df026e1 Fridtjof Nansen at DigitaltMuseum