History of propaganda
Propaganda is a form of communication that aims to shape people's beliefs and behaviors. It is typically not impartial. It is often biased, misleading, or even false to promote a specific agenda or perspective. Propagandists use various techniques to manipulate people's opinions, including selective presentation of facts, the omission of relevant information, and the use of emotionally charged language.
Propaganda can take many forms, including
Pre-modern precedents
Primitive forms of propaganda have been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence exists. The
Propaganda during the
During the U.S.'s
In the
19th century
Propaganda, as generally understood, is a modern phenomenon that emerged from the creation of literate and politically active societies informed by a mass media, where governments increasingly saw the necessity for swaying public opinion in favour of its policies. The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras produced some of the earliest propaganda of the Modern Period. A notable example was perhaps during the
In the U.S. prior to the
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, propaganda techniques became more refined and effective due to, on the one hand, the growth of new communication technologies (e.g. underseas cables, wireless radio, silent motion pictures), and on the other, the development of modern advertising and public relations.[7] Gabriel Tarde's Laws of Imitation (1890) and Gustave Le Bon's The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (1897) were two of the first codifications of propaganda techniques, which influenced many writers afterward, including Sigmund Freud. Hitler's Mein Kampf is heavily influenced by Le Bon's theories.
First World War
The first large-scale and organised propagation of government propaganda was occasioned by the outbreak of
Germany
At the start of the war, Germany expanded its unofficial propaganda machinery, establishing the Central Office for Foreign Services, which among other duties was tasked with propaganda distribution to neutral nations, persuading them to either side with Germany or to maintain their stance of neutrality. After the declaration of war, Britain immediately cut the
Germany published several newspapers and magazines for the occupied areas. The 'Gazette des Ardennes,' was designed for French readers in Belgium and France, Francophone prisoners of war, and generally as a propaganda vehicle in neutral and even enemy countries. Editor Fritz H. Schnitzer had a relatively free hand, and he tried to enhance his credibility by factual information. He realized until the closing days of the war that it was necessary to produce an increasingly optimistic report to hide the weakening position of the Central Powers in the summer and fall of 1918.[17]
The British made a careful analysis of the German propaganda campaigns. In terms of content, the official propaganda had multiple themes:[18] A) It proclaimed that German victory was a certainty. B) It explained Germany was fighting a war of defence. C) Enemy atrocities in were denounced, including its starvation plan for German civilians, use of dum dum bullets, and the use of black soldiers. D) The rhetoric exalted Germany's historic mission to promote high culture and true civilization, celebrating the slogan "work, order, duty" over the enemy's "liberty, equality, fraternity." E). It explained that German victory would benefit all of mankind, freeing the seas for all nations, and enabling the downtrodden colonies of the Allies to liberate themselves. F). Germany needed to land to expand, as an outlet for its surplus population, talent, organizing ability, financial capital, and manufacturing output. G). The riches of the world, especially raw materials, controlled by the British and the French, must be disgorged by the enemy to the benefit of Germany. The propaganda designed for the home market included points A through G.[19] Propaganda directed at neutral opinion downplayed D and F, and left out theme G. The Germans realized they needed to appeal to vocal supporters in countries allied with the Central Powers, especially Austria, Bulgaria, and Turkey. They put special emphasis on the Muslim world, using Turkey as their leverage. Much of the propaganda was oriented toward minorities in the Allied countries, as they tried to stir up Muslims in India and Russia and ethnic groups in Eastern Europe, especially the Poles. In prioritizing the goal of destabilizing the enemy, Berlin realized that it was often counterproductive to promote German glories. Other elements that were hostile or indifferent to Germany, especially among the far left and the Muslims, could best be reached through their own spokesman. Hence large sums—upwards of nine tons of gold—were given the Bolsheviks to spread their own anti-tsarist propaganda.[20]
Britain
After January 1916 the Bureau's activities were subsumed under the office of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. In May 1916 Masterman began recruiting artists, including
A variety of propaganda methods were used by the British during the war, with emphasis on the need for credibility.[22] Written forms of distributed propaganda included books, pamphlets, official publications, ministerial speeches or royal messages. They were targeted at influential individuals, such as journalists and politicians, rather than a mass audience.[citation needed] Pamphlets were distributed to various foreign countries, primarily the United States: – these pamphlets were academic in tone and factual in nature, distributed through unofficial channels. By 1916, 7 million copies had been circulated by Wellington House in various languages.[23]
British propagandists also sought to influence the foreign press, by providing it with information through the Neutral Press Committee and the Foreign Office. Special telegraph agencies were established in various European cities, including Bucharest, Bilbao and Amsterdam, in order to facilitate the spread of information.[24]
Recruitment was a central theme of domestic propaganda until the introduction of conscription in January 1916. The most common theme for recruitment posters was patriotism, which evolved into appeals for people to do their 'fair share'. Among the most famous of the posters used in the British Army recruitment campaign of World War I were the "Lord Kitchener Wants You" posters, which depicted Secretary of State for War Lord Kitchener above the words "WANTS YOU".
One major propaganda avenue was the use of atrocity stories. These aimed to mobilise hatred of the German enemy by spreading details of their atrocities, real or alleged, and was used extensively by Britain, reaching a peak in 1915, with much of the atrocities related to
United States
Before the United States declared war in 1917, the Woodrow Wilson administration established a propaganda department along similar lines. Propaganda experts Walter Lippmann and Edward Bernays participated in the Committee on Public Information (CPI), which was tasked with swaying popular opinion to encourage enlistment and war bond sales.[7] The CPI deployed posters, films, and provided themes for speeches by "four-minute men" at public functions,[7] and also encouraged censorship of the American press. The American press played an unwitting role too by relying on daily war news cables controlled by the British government and by spreading false stories of German atrocities in Belgium and German-occupied eastern France supplied by the British as well.[7][30] Starting after World War I, propaganda had a growing negative connotation. This was due in part to the 1920 book How We Advertised America: the First Telling of the Amazing Story of the Committee on Public Information that Carried the Gospel of Americanism to Every Corner of the Globe[31] in which the impact of the CPI, and the power of propaganda, was overemphasised. Also, exposure of fact that the atrocity stories were false created public distrust.[7] The CPI was so unpopular that after the war, Congress closed it down without providing funding to organise and archive its papers.
The war propaganda campaign of the CPI "produced within six months such an intense anti-German hysteria as to permanently impress American business (and Adolf Hitler, among others) with the potential of large-scale propaganda to control public opinion."[32]
The use of film by the U.S. Signal Corps and the Committee on Public Information during World War features in the documentary "Mobilizing Movies!" (2017).
Russian Revolution
White propaganda
The
Red propaganda
Russian revolutionaries of the 19th and 20th centuries distinguished two different aspects covered by the English term propaganda. Their terminology included two terms:
-
Meeting Germans in No Man's Land (1917)
-
Meeting before the Russian wire entanglements (1917)
-
Bolshevik propaganda train, 1923
-
ANT-20 "Maxim Gorky" propaganda aircraft in the Moscow sky
Post-war
Bernays, a nephew of Freud, who wrote the book Propaganda early in the 20th century,[36] later coined the terms "group mind" and "engineering consent", important concepts in practical propaganda work. He wrote:[37]
The conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organised habits and opinions of the masses is an important element in democratic society. Those who manipulate this unseen mechanism of society constitute an invisible government which is the true ruling power of our country.
We are governed, our minds are molded, our tastes formed, our ideas suggested, largely by men we have never heard of. This is a logical result of the way in which our democratic society is organised. Vast numbers of human beings must cooperate in this manner if they are to live together as a smoothly functioning society.
The documentary film
Lippmann, in Public Opinion (1922) also worked on the subject, as well as the American advertising pioneer and founder of the field of public relations Edward Bernays, a nephew of Freud, who wrote the book Propaganda early in the 20th century.[36]
According to Alex Carey, one distinctive feature of the 20th century was "the professionalising and institutionalising of propaganda", as it became an increasingly prominent, sophisticated, and self-conscious tactic of both government and business.[38]
Nazi Germany
After the defeat of Germany in the
Hitler met nearly every day with Goebbels to discuss the news, and Goebbels would obtain Hitler's thoughts on the subject. Goebbels then met with senior Ministry officials to pass down the official Party line on world events. Broadcasters and journalists required prior approval before their works were disseminated. Along with posters, the Nazis produced a number of films and books to spread their beliefs.
On 13 March 1933,
A major political and ideological cornerstone of Nazi policy was the unification of all ethnic Germans living outside of the Reich's borders under one Greater Germany (e.g. Austria and Czechoslovakia).[39] In Mein Kampf, Hitler made a direct remark to those outside of Germany. He stated that pain and misery were being forced upon ethnic Germans outside of Germany, and that they dream of common fatherland. He finished by stating they needed to fight for one's nationality.[40] Throughout Mein Kampf, he pushed Germans worldwide to make the struggle for political power and independence their main focus. Nazi propaganda used the Heim ins Reich policy for this, which began in 1938.[41]
For months prior to the beginning of World War II in 1939, German newspapers and leaders had carried out a national and international propaganda campaign accusing Polish authorities of organizing or tolerating violent ethnic cleansing of ethnic Germans living in Poland.[42] On 22 August, Adolf Hitler told his generals:
"I will provide a propagandistic casus belli. Its credibility doesn't matter. The victor will not be asked whether he told the truth."[43][44]
The main part of this propaganda campaign was the
Nuremberg Laws
In 1935, racist laws in Nazi Germany were introduced known as the Nuremberg Laws, the laws forbade non-Aryans and political opponents of the Nazis from the civil-service and any sexual relations and marriage between people classified as "Aryan" and "non-Aryan" (Jews, Gypsies, blacks) was prohibited as Rassenschande or "race defilement".[46] The Nuremberg Laws were based on notions of racial purity and sought to preserve the Aryan race, who were at the top of the Nazi racial hierarchy and were said to be the ubermenschen "herrenvolk" (master race),[47] and to teach the German nation to view the Jews as subhumans.[48]
Hitler and Nazi propagandists played on the
Political opponents
Soon after the takeover of power in 1933, Nazi concentration camps were established for political opponents. The first people that were sent to the camps were Communists.[49] They were sent because of their ties with the Soviet Union and because Nazism greatly opposed Communism.[50]
France in the 1930s
France, a democratic society in the 1930s, but the people were kept in the dark about critical issues of foreign policy. The government tightly controlled all of the media to promulgate propaganda to support the government's foreign policy of appeasement to the aggressions of Italy and especially Nazi Germany. There were 253 daily newspapers, all owned separately. The five major national papers based in Paris were all under the control of special interests, especially right-wing political and business interests that supported appeasement. They were all venal, taking large secret subsidies to promote the policies of various special interests. Many leading journalists were secretly on the government payroll. The regional and local newspapers were heavily dependent on government advertising and published news and editorials to suit Paris. Most of the international news was distributed through the Havas agency, which was largely controlled by the government. Radio was a potentially powerful new medium, but France was quite laggard in consumer ownership of radio sets, and the government impose very strict controls. After 1938, stations were allowed only three brief daily bulletins, of seven minutes each, to cover all the day's news. The Prime Minister's office closely supervised the news items that were to be broadcast. Newsreels were tightly censored; they were told to feature none controversial but glamorous entertainers, film premieres, sporting events, high-fashion, new automobiles, an official ceremonies. Motion pictures likely likewise were censored, and were encouraged to reinforce stereotypes to the effect that the French were always lovers of liberty and justice, contending against cruel and barbarous Germans. The government-subsidized films that glorified military virtues and the French Empire. The goal was to tranquilize public opinion, to give it little or nothing to work with, so as not to interfere with the policies of the national government. When serious crises emerged such as the Munich crisis of 1938, people were puzzled and mystified by what was going on. When war came in 1939, Frenchman had little understanding of the issues, and little correct information. They suspiciously distrusted the government, with the result that French morale in the face of the war with Germany was badly prepared.[51]
Second World War
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2014) |
Within the US, the
The British broadcast black propaganda through fake German-language radio stations to Europe. It was disguised to sound like legitimate German radio broadcasts, but it had a negative twist designed to undermine German morale. The Germans undertook a similar program. The Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda used English language broadcasts – such as Germany Calling – broadcast to the UK. Presenter William Joyce – a British fascist – gained the nickname "Lord Haw-Haw" from the popular press.[54]
In the US,
Cold War propaganda
During the
All sides used film, television, and radio programming to influence their own citizens, each other, and Third World nations. The
In 1948, the
Its main targets were in the Third World.[59] However, it was also set out to "be of use to" British media and opinion formers. As well as supplying material to the BBC World Service, secret lists were compiled of approved journalists and trade unionists to whom material was offered, if not always accepted.
Possibly its most notorious "project" was the joint operation with the CIA to set up
The
When describing life in capitalist countries, in the US in particular, propaganda focused on social issues such as poverty and anti-union action by the government. Workers in capitalist countries were portrayed as "ideologically close". Propaganda claimed rich people from the US derived their income from weapons manufacturing, and claimed that there was substantial racism or neo-fascism in the US.
When describing life in Communist countries, western propaganda sought to depict an image of a citizenry held captive by governments that brainwash them. The West also created a fear of the East, by depicting an aggressive Soviet Union. In the Americas, Cuba served as a major source and a target of propaganda from both black and white stations operated by the CIA and Cuban exile groups. Radio Habana Cuba, in turn, broadcast original programming, relayed Radio Moscow, and broadcast The Voice of Vietnam as well as alleged confessions from the crew of the USS Pueblo.
During the Cuban Revolution, in 1955 Fidel Castro stressed the importance of propaganda in his struggle both against Fulgencio Batista and the United States, saying, "Propaganda is the heart of our struggle. We must never abandon propaganda."[62]
Vietnam War
Pro-South
From the beginning of
Lansdale went on to run
Pro-North
Propaganda was used extensively by Communist forces in the
"Ho Chi Minh may have been an evil man; Nixon may have been a great man. The Americans may have had the just cause; we may not have had the just cause. But we won and the Americans were defeated because we convinced the people that Ho Chi Minh is the great man, that Nixon is a murderer and the Americans are the invaders... The key factor is how to control people and their opinions. Only Marxism–Leninism can do that."[66]
U.S. home front
On the U.S. home front, information was tightly controlled and the government maintained an upbeat official line about the conduct of the War. However, during the
Yugoslav Wars
During the
Propaganda was used to incite fear and hatred, and particularly incite the Serb population against the other ethnicities (
According to the
During the
Propaganda films
At the turn of the 20th century, films emerged as the new cultural agents, depicting events and showing foreign images to mass audiences in European and American cities. Politics and film began to intertwine with the reconstruction of the
The earliest known propaganda film was a series of short silent films made during the Spanish–American War in 1898 created by Vitagraph Studios.
At an epic 120 minute running time, the 1912 Romanian Independența României is the first fictional film in the world with a deliberate propagandistic message. Filmed with a budget that would not be reached by a Romanian movie until 1970 (Michael the Brave, supported by the Romanian communist regime also for propagandistic purposes), the movie was meant to shift the perception of the Romanian public towards an acceptance of Romanian involvement into an expected Balkan conflict (the First Balkan War).[79]
Another of the early fictional films to be used for propaganda was The Birth of a Nation (1915).
World War I
Film was still relatively new to urban audiences with the outbreak of hostilities in 1914. Governments' use of film as propaganda reflected this. The British and Americans' initial struggles in the official use of film led to eventual success in their use of the medium. The Germans were off to a faster start in recognising film's value as a tool of perpetuating pro-German sentiment in the US through The American Correspondent Film Company as well as on the front lines with their mobile cinemas, which showed feature films and newsreels.
Though the Allied governments were slow to use film as a medium for conveying a desired position and set of beliefs, individuals, such as Charlie Chaplin were considerably more successful with The Bond and Zepped.
Interwar period
In the years following the
Between the Great Wars American films celebrated the bravery of the American soldiers while depicting war as an existential nightmare. Films such as The Big Parade depicted the horrors of trench warfare, the brutal destruction of villages, and the lack of provisions.[81]
Meanwhile, Nazi filmmakers produced highly emotional films about the suffering of the German minority in Czechoslovakia and Poland, which were crucial towards creating popular support for occupying the Sudetenland and attacking Poland. Films like the 1941 Heimkehr (Homecoming) depicted the plight of homesick ethnic Germans in Poland longing to return to the Reich which in turn set the psychological conditions for the real attack and acceptance of the German policy, Lebensraum (living space).[78]
World War II
The 1930s and 1940s, which saw the rise of
In the United States during
was the first American actor (as "Moe Hailstone") to spoof Hitler in film.Many of the dramatic
Similar to Nazi Germany, the U.S.S.R. prepared its citizens for war by releasing dramas, such as Sergei Eisenstein's iconic Alexander Nevsky. The U.S.S.R also screened films depicting partisan activity and the suffering inflicted by the Nazis, such as Girl No. 217, which showed a Russian girl enslaved by an inhumane German family. Films were shown on propaganda trains while newsreels were screened in subway stations to reach those who were unable to pay to see films in the theater.[91]
Cold War
Psychological combat was in fashion during the Cold War, and was used heavily by both sides.[92]
When describing life in Communist countries, western propaganda sought to depict an image of a brainwashed citizenry which was then held captive by their government. The CIA's Office of Policy Coordination adapted George Orwell's Animal Farm into an animated movie in 1954 that was released in England.[93] In 1951, the American Federation of Labor disseminated a map, entitled "'Gulag'--Slavery, Inc.," of the Soviet Union showing the locations of 175 forced labor camps administered by the Gulag. It was widely reprinted across the United States and internationally.[94] The U.S. government made various anti-communist "education" documentaries, known as Armed Forces Information Films (AFIF), first shown to the Armed Forces, then released to commercial television or as educational films in schools. They include Communism (1950), Communist Weapon of Allure (1950), Communist Blueprint for Conquest (1956), Red Nightmare (1957), Challenge of Ideas (1961), and Communism (1967). Some were used to portray the American Left as infiltrated by communism, such as Communist Target—Youth (1960), produced by J. Edgar Hoover, which painted the anti-HUAC riots of the 1950s as the work of communism; Anarchy, USA (1966) presents the civil rights movement as a part of a communist plot for world domination.
Red Dawn (1984) was a commercial Hollywood film that depicts an alternate 1980s in which the United States is invaded by the Soviet Union, Cuba, Nicaragua, and other Latin American allies of the U.S.S.R. and a group of small-town high school students engage in guerrilla warfare in their resistance of the occupation, eventually beating the communists.[95]
Pork Chop Hill (1959) was the most notable 1950s American anti-war propaganda piece about the Korean war. Milestone was known for his previous anti-war films, including 1930's All Quiet on the Western Front and Shangganling (The Battle of Sangkumryung Ridge or Triangle Hill; 1956), which was the most influential film on the Chinese in that era. Both Pork Chop Hill and Shangganling depict a single battle in which a small dedicated unit defends a small holdout with very little hope of reprieve. Like all propaganda the importance of the film is not the battle itself but the outstanding characteristics of such individuals who would commit such acts of patriotism for their home and country.[96]
Post-9/11
Over 100 years since its creation, film continues to resonate with viewers and helps influence or reinforce a particular viewpoint. Following the
Ayman al-Zawahiri stated that "We are in a media battle for the hearts and minds of our umma [community] of Muslims."[99] Towards winning the hearts and minds of the MENA region, Al-Qaeda and its affiliates have produced propaganda films and documentaries depicting jihadist attacks, last will and testament videos, training, and interviews, all meant to boost morale among supporters. Al-Qaeda established a Media Committee early in its inception to handle traditional Western and Arab media as well as create an online media presence, which was established through the multi-media company as-Sahab in 2001. The company, which produces documentary-like films and operational videos for Afghanistan is known for its technological sophistication, cinematic effects, and their efforts to reach the west with translations and subtitling. Its operational videos were serialised in Pyre for Americans in Khorasan [Afghanistan]. Other productions in North Africa include Apostate in Hell, a Somali film produced by al-Fajr Media Centre includes interviews with Somali jihadists, training of fighters, preparation for an attack, and actual operations. It along with many other al-Qaeda videos is distributed by Arabic jihadist websites as that community relies on the Internet to a high degree to disseminate information to followers.[100]
Food, health, and beyond
Elements of propaganda films can also be incorporated into films that have messages that seek to implement positive change within society.[101] However, what one generation may see as positive, later generations may experience as negative.
- Food
As mentioned previously, Walt Disney's Food Will Win the War (1942) attempts to make US citizens feel good by using US agriculture as a means of power.
Since the 1990s to the present, responses to
- Health
Health and medical propaganda films include
- Other
Other propaganda film topics include Cannabis and hemp, Are You Popular? (1947, Coronet Films, popularity),[106] The Spirit of '43 (1943, Disney, income taxes) with Donald Duck,[106] Boys Beware (1961, anti-homosexuality),[106] Perversion for Profit (1965, anti-pornography),[106] Days and Nights in Wuhan (2021) about the COVID-19 pandemic in Wuhan, China,[110] The Secret (2006), a self-help film about the metaphysical concept of the law of attraction, Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed (2008) about intelligent design, Silent Contest (2013) a military propaganda film produced by the People's Liberation Army, and Elk*rtuk (2021), about Ferenc Gyurcsány's controversial Őszöd speech, made to defamate the liberal politician.
21st century
Forms
Fake news
Workplace
The ease of data collection emerging from the IT revolution has been suggested to have created a novel form of workplace propaganda.[114] A lack of control on the acquired data's use has led to the widespread implementation of workplace propaganda created much more locally by managers in small and large companies, hospitals, colleges and Universities etc. The author highlights the transition of propagandist coming from large, often national producers to small scale production. The same article also notes a departure from the traditional methodology of propagandists i.e., the use of emotionally provocative imagery to distort facts. Data driven propaganda is suggested to use 'distorted data' to overrule emotion. For example, by providing rationales for ideologically driven pay cuts etc.
Nations
China
Propaganda is used by the
Aspects of propaganda can be traced back to the earliest periods of Chinese history, but propaganda has been most effective in the twentieth century owing to mass media and an authoritarian government.[117] China in the era of Mao Zedong is known for its constant use of mass campaigns to legitimise the state and the policies of leaders. It was the first Chinese government to successfully make use of modern mass propaganda techniques, adapting them to the needs of a country which had a largely rural and illiterate population.[117] In poor developing countries, China spreads propaganda through methods such as opening Confucius Institutes, and providing training programs in China for foreign officials and students.[120]
According to Anne-Marie Brady, the Foreign Ministry first set up a system of designated officials to give information in times of crisis in 1983, and greatly expanded the system to lower levels in the mid-1990s. China's spin had been directed only at foreigners, but in the 1990s leaders realised that managing public crises was useful for domestic politics; this included setting up provincial level "News Coordinator Groups," and inviting foreign PR firms to give seminars.[121]
Brady writes that Chinese foreign propaganda officials took cues from the Blair government's spin doctoring during the mad cow disease crisis of 2000–2001, and the Bush government's use of the U.S. media after the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001. According to her, the Blair model allows for a certain amount of negative coverage to be shown during a crisis, which is believed to help release some of the "social tension" surrounding it. She believes information managers in China used this approach during coal mining disasters of 2005.[121]
According to Brady, trained official spokespeople are now available on call in every central government ministry, as well as in local governments, to deal with emerging crises; these spin doctors are coordinated and trained by the Office of Foreign Propaganda/State Council Information Office.[121]
During the July 2009 Ürümqi riots, Communist Party officials moved swiftly in a public relations campaign. According to Newsweek, Party officials felt that the recent riots risked tarnishing China's global image, and underwent a public relations program involving quickly getting out the government's official version of the events, as well as transporting foreign journalists to riot affected areas. The growth in new technologies, such as email and SMS, forced the CCP's hand into taking up spin.
Instead of attempting a media blackout as with the 2008 Tibetan unrest, the Party has adopted a series of more advanced techniques to influence the information leaving China. The day after violence in Ürümqi, the State Council Information Office set up a Xinjiang Information Office in Ürümqi to assist foreign reporters. It invited foreign media to Xinjiang to tour the riot zones, visit hospitals, and look at the aftermath themselves. Journalists were also given CDs with photos and TV clips. "They try to control the foreign journalists as much as possible by using this more sophisticated PR work rather than ban[ning] them," according to Professor Xiao Qiang, quoted by Newsweek.[122]
Mexico
Drug cartels have been engaged in propaganda and psychological campaigns to influence their rivals and those within their area of influence. They use banners and narcomantas to threaten their rivals. Some cartels hand out pamphlets and leaflets to conduct public relation campaigns. They have been able to control the information environment by threatening journalists, bloggers and others who speak out against them. They have elaborate recruitment strategies targeting young adults to join their cartel groups. They have successfully branded the word narco, and the word has become part of Mexican culture. There is music, television shows, literature, beverages, food and architecture that all have been branded narco.[123][124]
North Korea
Every year, a state-owned publishing house[
DPRK textbooks claim that US missionaries came to the Korean Peninsula and committed barbarous acts against Korean children, including injecting dangerous liquids into the children and writing the word "THIEF" on the forehead of any child who stole an apple for missionary-owned orchards in Korea.[125]
United States
The
Anti-smoking campaigns that aired in the United States between 1999 and 2000 were state-sponsored to decrease the amounts of youth smoking.[132] The 'Truth' anti-smoking campaign was created to target 12-17 year old to decrease youth smoking in the United States.[133] February 2004 the 'Truth' anti-smoking campaign started to show up on televised commercials to expose youth of the dangers of tobacco and smoking.[132] The televised campaign used provocative tactics to decrease the amount of youth using tobacco and to change attitudes towards the tobacco industry.[132]
In early 2002, the
The
Social Media
In 2011, The Guardian reported that the United States Central Command (Centcom) was working with a California corporation to develop software that would allow the US government to "secretly manipulate social media sites by using fake online personas to influence internet conversations and spread pro-American propaganda." A Centcom spokesman stated that the "interventions" were not targeting any US-based web sites, in English or any other language, and also said that the propaganda campaigns were not targeting Facebook or Twitter.[139]
In October 2018, The Daily Telegraph reported that Facebook "banned hundreds of pages and accounts which it says were fraudulently flooding its site with partisan political content – although they came from the US instead of being associated with Russia."[140]
In 2022, the Stanford Internet Observatory and Graphika studied banned accounts on Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and five other social media platforms that used deceptive tactics to promote pro-Western narratives in the Middle East and Central Asia.[141][142][143][144][145][146]
Vice News noted that "U.S. leaning social media influence campaigns are, ultimately, very similar to those run by adversarial countries."
The Intercept reported in December 2022 that the United States military ran a "network of social media accounts and online personas", and that Twitter whitelisted a batch of accounts upon the request of the United States government. Whitelisting the propaganda accounts gave them the same privileges of a user with a blue check to increase the reach of their operations.[147][148]
Russia
Vladimir Putin's Russia has been reviving the Soviet-style Propaganda traditions. He stated in April 2005 on national television that the destruction of the USSR was "the greatest geopolitical catastrophe of the twentieth century."[149] In 2005 he established "Russia Today", now called RT, with English, Spanish and Arabic cable news channels financed by the government and designed to function as a "soft power" tool that will improve Russia's image abroad and counter the anti-Russian bias it sees in the Western media. RT's rouble budget in 2013–14 was equivalent to $300 million US dollars, compared to the $367 million budget of the BBC-World Service Group. RT has an American channel based in Washington, and in 2014 opened a British channel based in London. However the sharp decline in the rouble forced it to postpone channels in German and French. Meanwhile, China and Iran have followed the RT model in launching their own English language channels.[150]
Journalism expert Julia Ioffe argues, RT became an:
- extension of former President Vladimir Putin's confrontational foreign policy....It featured fringe-dwelling "experts," like the Russian historian who predicted the imminent dissolution of the United States; broadcast bombastic speeches by Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez; aired ads conflating Barack Obama with Mahmoud Ahmadinejad; and ran out-of-nowhere reports on the homeless in America.[151]
Critics identify a cult of personality around Putin, known as Putinism. Cassiday and Johnson Argue that since taking power in 1999, "Putin has inspired expressions of adulation the likes of which Russia has not seen since the days of Stalin. Tributes to his achievements and personal attributes have flooded every possible media."[152] Ross says the cult emerged quickly by 2002 and emphasizes Putin's "iron will, health, youth and decisiveness, tempered by popular support." Ross concludes, "The development of a Putin mini cult of personality was based on a formidable personality at its heart."[153]
Putin's government shut down almost all independent television media, while allowing a few small critical newspapers and websites to exist.[154] school textbooks were revised to teach students the exceptionality of Russian historical development and how Putin fits into the grand Russian traditions.[155]
Vietnam
Posters hanging everywhere often describe unity of the working class, farmers and soldiers under the leadership of the Communist Party of Vietnam and Ho Chi Minh. Residents and students have been studying ethics and ideology of Ho Chi Minh.[citation needed]
Contemporary wars
Afghan War
In the 2001
Iraq War
Both the United States and Iraq employed propaganda during the Iraq War. The United States established campaigns towards the American people on the justifications of the war while using similar tactics to bring down Saddam Hussein's government in Iraq.[156]
Iraqi propaganda
The Iraqi insurgency's plan was to gain as much support as possible by using violence as their propaganda tool.
Insurgents also produced CDs and DVDs and distributed them in communities that the Iraq and the
US propaganda in Iraq
To achieve their aim of a moderate, pro-western Iraq, US authorities were careful to avoid conflicts with Islamic culture that would produce passionate reactions from Iraqis, but differentiating between "good" and "bad" Islam has proved challenging for the US.[158]
The US implemented
The US was more successful with the Voice of America campaign, which is an old Cold War tactic that exploited people's desire for information.[158] While the information they gave out to the Iraqis was truthful, they were in a high degree of competition with the opposing forces after the censorship of the Iraqi media was lifted with the removal of Saddam from power.[162]
In November 2005, the
Propaganda aimed at US citizens
The extent to which the US government used propaganda aimed at its own people is a matter of discussion. The book Selling Intervention & War, by Jon Western, argued that president Bush was "selling the war" to the public.[165] In a 2005 talk to students Bush said: "See, in my line of work, you got to keep repeating things over and over, and over again, for the truth to sink in, to kind of catapult the propaganda."[166]
While the United States' official stance was to remove Saddam Hussein's power in Iraq with allegations that his government held weapons of mass destruction or was related to
Russian nationals used different propaganda tools to interfere with the United States 2016 election between Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton.[169] Russia created political propaganda for the United States 2016 election to confuse voters from interpreting which news information was false or misleading.[170] Different tactics used to interfere with the United States 2016 included fake social media accounts on Twitter, Facebook, and other cites, false political rallies, and online political advertisements.[169] Russian nationals used new online propaganda which "is not to convince or persuade", but rather to cause distraction and paranoia.[171] The Select Committee On Intelligence in the United States Senate found that technology aided to providing more convincing and realistic propaganda.[171]
See also
- American propaganda during World War II
- British propaganda during WWII
- Canadian propaganda during World War II
- Color books
- International Convention concerning the Use of Broadcasting in the Cause of Peace
- Kangura
- Japanese propaganda during World War II
- Propaganda in North Korea
- Propaganda in the People's Republic of China
- Propaganda in the Republic of China
- Propaganda in the War in Somalia
- Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines
- Soviet propaganda during World War II
References
- ISBN 978-0-205-69187-6.
- Boesche, Roger. "Kautilya's Arthasastra on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India", The Journal of Military History 67 (pp. 9–38), January 2003.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-0732-8– via Google Books.
- ISBN 978-1-4514-1398-4.
- ^ In Latin, the title reads "Hic oscula pedibus papae figuntur"
- ^ Mark U. Edwards, Printing Propaganda and Martin Luther 15; Louise W. Holborn, "Printing and the Growth of a Protestant Movement in Germany from 1517 to 1524", Church History, 11, no. 2 (1942), 123.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Susan A. Brewer, "Propaganda", in The Oxford Companion to United States History, ed. Paul S. Boyer (Oxford/NY: Oxford University Press, 2001), 625.
- ^ Russ Castronovo, Propaganda 1776: Secrets, Leaks, and Revolutionary Communications in Early America (2014) excerpt
- ^ "Hoax: Franklin's Forgery | JHU Press". www.press.jhu.edu. Archived from the original on 2020-02-25. Retrieved 2018-09-07.
- ^ David Welch, "Introduction: Propaganda in Historical Perspective", in Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present, eds. Nicholas J. Cull et al. (Santa Barbara, Cal.: ABC-CLIO, 2004), xvi.
- ISBN 0-231-12456-2.
- ISBN 978-0-8223-3074-5.
- ISBN 978-0-8223-3074-5.
- ^ Martin J. Manning, "Abolitionist Propaganda", in Encyclopedia of Media and Propaganda in Wartime America, eds. Martin J. Manning & Clarence R. Wyatt (Santa Barbara, Cal.: ABC-CLIO, 2011), 1: 302.
- ^ Winter, Jay M. "Propaganda and the Mobilization of Consent." in Winter, ed., The Oxford Illustrated History of the First World War (2014) pp: 216+
- ^ Pearl James, ed., Picture this: World War I posters and visual culture (U of Nebraska Press, 2009)
- ^ Rainer Pöppinghege, "Deutsche Auslandspropaganda 1914–1918: Die 'Gazette Des Ardennes' Und Ihr Chefredakteur Fritz H. Schnitzer" ["German foreign propaganda, 1914–18: the 'Gazette des Ardennes' and its editor-in-chief, Fritz H. Schnitzer"]. Francia: Part 3 19./20. Jahrhundert (2004) 31#3 pp 49–64.
- ^ P. Chalmers Mitchell, Report on the Propaganda Library (British Ministry of information, 1917) reprinted in W. Henry Cook and Edith P Stickney, eds, Readings in European International Relations since 1879 (1931) pp 558–561.
- ^ David Welch, Germany, Propaganda and Total War, 1914–1918: the sins of omission (2000).
- ISBN 978-0-307-78857-3.
- ^ "The Battle for the Mind: German and British Propaganda in the First World War". 2008-04-25. Retrieved 2012-12-17.
- ^ Sanders 1982, p. 143
- ^ Sanders 1975, pp. 129–130
- ^ Sanders 1975, pp. 134–135
- ^ Wilson 1979, p. 369
- ISBN 0-7818-0370-5
- ISBN 0-7818-0370-5
- ^ Haste 1977, pp. 93–95;Knightley 2002, p. 86; Sanders 1982, p. 143
- ^ Welch 2003, pp. 123–124
- ^ John J. Newman & John M. Schmalbach, United States History: Preparing for the Advanced Placement Examination, 2nd edn. (NY: Amsco, 2010), 450.
- ^ E.M. Rogers, A History of Communication Study: A Biographical Approach (NY: The Free Press, 1994).
- ^ Alex Carey, Taking the Risk Out of Democracy: Corporate Propaganda versus Freedom and Liberty (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 22.
- ^ ISBN 0-8032-1727-7.
- ISBN 978-1-897959-25-1.
- ^ Cohn 1967.
- ^ a b "PR! A Social History Of Spin -Chapter 1". Retrieved 6 March 2015.
- ^ Bernays, Edward. Propaganda (1928)
- ^ "Conspiracy Or Groundswell?", in Ken Coghill and McPhee Gribble (eds.), The New Right's Australian Fantasy, Penguin Books 1987, pp. 3–19.
- ISBN 978-0-271-04409-5.
- ^ Hitler, Adolf. Mein Kampf. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999
- ISBN 978-0-85170-882-9.
- ^ "German newspaper editor outlining the claims of Polish atrocities against minorities". Nizkor.org. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4128-3520-6.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-203-64458-4.
- ISBN 978-1-60239-178-9.
- ^ "What were the Nuremberg Laws in Nazi Germany? – eNotes". eNotes.
- ^ "Exhibitions at The Breman – The Breman Museum". www.thebreman.org.
- ISBN 978-0-253-21305-1.
- ^ "Holocaust-history.org". www.holocaust-history.org. Archived from the original on 2000-05-10.
- ^ "Holocaust Timeline: The Camps". fcit.usf.edu.
- ^ Anthony Adamthwaite, Grandeur and Misery: France's Bid for Power in Europe 1914–1940 (1995) pp 175–92.
- ^ Nicholas John Cull, Selling War: The British Propaganda Campaign Against American "Neutrality" in World War II (1995)
- ^ Susan A. Brewer, To Win the Peace: British Propaganda in the United States During World War II (1997)
- ^ Stanley Newcourt-Nowodworski, Black Propaganda in the Second World War (2005) excerpt and text search
- ^ Philip M. Taylor, 1990, "Munitions of the mind: A history of propaganda", Pg. 170.
- ^ Jackson A. Giddens, "Propaganda", in Encyclopedia Americana (Danbury, Conn.: Scholastic Library Publishing, 2006), 22: 659.
- ^ "Records". Archived from the original on July 23, 2012. Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ^ "Reports". Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ^ Death of the department that never was from The Guardian, January 27, 1978
- ^ Frances Stonor Saunders (12 July 1999). "How the CIA plotted against us". New Statesman. Retrieved 2008-12-21.
- ^ "The cartoon that came in from the cold". The Guardian. 7 March 2003. Retrieved 6 March 2015.
- ^ prudentiapolitica (20 May 2014). "Prudentia Politica". Retrieved 6 March 2015.
- ^ Stephen Kinzer, The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War (Times Books, 2013), p. 195-197
- ^ ""Lansdale Team's Report on Covert Saigon Mission in 1954 and 1955", The Pentagon Papers, Gravel edition". www.mtholyoke.edu. Archived from the original on 2022-01-03. Retrieved 2018-04-07.
- ^ "Vietnamese propaganda reflections from 1945–2000" (PDF).
- ^ Toại, Đoàn Văn (29 March 1981). "A Lament For Vietnam". New York Times Magazine. Retrieved 3 March 2015.
- ^ Brewer 2001, p. 626.
- ^ George C. Herring, "Vietnam War", in The Oxford Companion to United States History, ed. Paul S. Boyer (Oxford/NY: Oxford University Press, 2001), 808.
- ^ "Serbian Propaganda: A Closer Look". April 12, 1999. Archived from the original on June 4, 2013. Retrieved March 21, 2015.
NOAH ADAMS: The European Center for War, Peace and the News Media, based in London, has received word from Belgrade that no pictures of mass Albanian refugees have been shown at all, and that the Kosovo humanitarian catastrophe is only referred to as the one made up or over-emphasised by Western propaganda.
Also, and we quote from the report, "information programs are designed to present the illegitimacy of a NATO aggression on Yugoslavia, the unanimity of the Serbian people in resisting the enemy and Serbian invincibility. All three aims are wrapped in a nationalistic code, `most powerful Western nations, killers, death disseminators, fascists, dictators, criminals, villains, bandits, vandals, barbarians, gangsters, vampires, cowards, perverts, lunatics, scum and trash who want to destroy the small but honorable, dignified, freedom-loving Serbian nation. - ^ "ICTY: Radoslav Brđanin verdict – 1. Joint Criminal Enterprise".
- ^ "ICTY: Radoslav Brđanin verdict — C. The implementation of the Strategic Plan in the Bosnian Krajina".
- ^ "ICTY: Blaškić verdict — A. The Lasva Valley: May 1992 – January 1993 – b) The municipality of Busovača".
- ^ "ICTY: Blaškić verdict — A. The Lasva Valley: May 1992 – January 1993 – c) The municipality of Kiseljak".
- ^ "ICTY: Kordić and Čerkez verdict — IV. Attacks on towns and villages: killings – 2. The Conflict in Gornji Vakuf".
- ^ "ICTY: Naletilić and Martinović verdict — Mostar attack".
- ^ "Slobodna Dalmacija: 28.12". www.hsp1861.hr.
- ^ "2001/10/05 12:12 Izlog izdavačkog smeća". 5 October 2001. Retrieved 6 March 2015.
- ^ a b c d Stern, Frank. "Screening Politics: Cinema and Intervention" (PDF). Georgetown Journal of International Affairs. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
- ^ Cristian Tudor Popescu, Filmul surd în România mută: politică și propagandă în filmul românesc de ficțiune, Polirom, Iași, 2012
- Croom Helm Ltd., 1979. 92–94, 101.
- ^ Koppes, Clayton, and Gregory Black. Hollywood Goes to War. New York: The Free Press, 1987. 67
- ^ Shelton, Dinah L. "Film as Propaganda". Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity. eNotes.com. Archived from the original on September 3, 2011. Retrieved 21 September 2011.
- ^ Taylor, Richard. Film Propaganda: Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany. London: Croom Helm Ltd., 1979. 190–191.
- ^ Culbert, David. Verbatim Testimony. 1945. New York, Washington.
- ^ Thompson, Kristin, and David Bordwell. Film History: An Introduction. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2003. 313.
- Digital History. 2006. Retrieved 17 May 2007.
- ^ a b Food Will Win The War, Disney's World War II Propaganda Film, Chris Durso, Foodiggity, 19 December 2011 (Retrieved 3 February 2012)
- ^ "What Hitler Wants". YouTube. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
- ^ Koppes, Clayton, and Black Gregory. Hollywood Goes to War. New York: The Free Press, 1987.
- Garland Publishing, 1994. p.54
- ^ Rhodes, Anthony. Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1976. p. 214, 219
- ^ Judith Devlin, and Christoph H Muller, eds., War of Words: Culture and the Mass Media in the Making of the Cold War in Europe (2013)
- TheGuardian.com.. The entire movie is available through the Internet Movie Database at Animal Farm (1954).
- ^ Timothy Barney, "'Gulag'--Slavery, Inc.': The Power of Place and the Rhetorical Life of a Cold War Map," Rhetoric & Public Affairs (2013) 16#2 pp 317–353.
- ^ Miller, John J. (27 November 2011). "The Best Conservative Movies". National Review.
- ^ Pickowicz, Paul. "Revisiting Cold War Propaganda: Close Readings of Chinese and American Film Representations of the Korean War." Journal of American-East Asian Relations 17.4 (2010): 352.
- ^ Dean, Jeremy (2 November 2007). "9 Propaganda Techniques in Michael Moore's Fahrenheit 9/11". PsyBlog. Jeremy Dean. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
- ISBN 978-0-415-40101-2.
- ^ Rogan, Hanna. "Abu Reuter and the E-Jihad: Virtual Battlefronts from Iraq to the Horn of Africa" (PDF). Georgetown Journal of International Affairs. p. 89. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 April 2012. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ Rogan, Hanna. "Abu Reuter and the E-Jihad: Virtual Battlefronts from Iraq to the Horn of Africa" (PDF). Georgetown Journal of International Affairs. pp. 90–91, 93. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 April 2012. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ Critical Analysis Part 1: Food, Inc., Jen James, WRH 315: Propaganda and You, 23 April 2010 (Retrieved 4 February 2012)
- Archive.org(Retrieved 4 February 2012)
- ^ Good Eating Habits, Prelinger Archives at Archive.org (Retrieved 4 February 2012)
- ^ Miracles From Agriculture, Prelinger Archives at Archive.org (Retrieved 4 February 2012)
- ^ Center for Consumer Freedom, 7 July 2009 (Retrieved 3 February 2012)
- ^ a b c d e The Five Most Misleading Propaganda Films from the 40s, 50s and 60s Archived 2014-02-28 at the Wayback Machine, Daniel Murphy, Esquire Blog, 7 November 2011 (Retrieved 4 February 2012)
- ^ a b c Medical Propaganda Films, Wallace Sampson, Science-Based Medicine, 2 April 2009 (Retrieved 3 February 2012)
- ^ Anti-vaccine propaganda lands in New York City this weekend Archived 2012-05-15 at the Wayback Machine, David Gorski, Respectful Insolence (ScienceBlogs), 18 November 2011 (Retrieved 3 February 2012)
- ^ Stanislaw Burzynski: Bad medicine, a bad movie, and bad P.R., David Gorski, Science-Based Medicine, 28 November 2011 (Retrieved 6 February 2012)
- ^ "'Heroic hymn of the people': Chinese government film marks year since Wuhan lockdown". Reuters. 22 January 2021. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 23 March 2021.
- ^ Weisburd, Andrew; Watts, Clint (6 August 2016), "Trolls for Trump – How Russia Dominates Your Twitter Feed to Promote Lies (And, Trump, Too)", The Daily Beast, retrieved 24 November 2016
- Snopes.com, retrieved 19 November 2016
- ^ Lewis Sanders IV (11 October 2016), "'Divide Europe': European lawmakers warn of Russian propaganda", Deutsche Welle, retrieved 24 November 2016
- ^ McNamara, Adam. "BULL: A new form of propaganda in the digital age". Data Not Propaganda. Archived from the original on 17 December 2015. Retrieved 5 August 2015.
- doi:10.16997/wpcc.15.
- S2CID 222814073.
- ^ a b c Mitter, Rana (2003). Cull, Nicholas J.; Colbert, David; Welch, David (eds.). Entry on "China" in Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present. ABC-ClIO. pp. 73–77.
- ^ Kingsley Edney (2014), The Globalization of Chinese Propaganda: International Power and Domestic Political Cohesion, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 22, 195.
- ^ Translations from John DeFrancis, ed. (2003), ABC Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary, University of Hawaii Press, p. 1087.
- ^ Kurlantzick, Joshua; Link, Perry (2009). "China's Modern Authoritarianism". Wall Street Journal.
- ^ a b c Brady, Anne-Marie (2008). Marketing dictatorship: propaganda and thought work in contemporary China. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 1.
- ^ Hennock, Mary. "Bad Press: The Uighur riots in western China are teaching the government how to spin", 7 July 2009
- ^ O'Connor, Mike (November 5, 2010). "Analysis: A PR department for Mexico's narcos". GlobalPost. Retrieved 2012-03-28.
- ^ Beckhart, Sarah (February 21, 2011). "The Narco Generation". AL DÍA. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars's Mexico Institute. Retrieved 2012-03-28.
- ^ "Nuclear Nightmare: Understanding North Korea". Documentary Addict.
- , enacted November 18, 1988
- ^ Gamboa, Anthony H. (January 4, 2005), B-303495, Office of National Drug Control Policy — Video News Release (PDF), Government Accountability Office, footnote 6, page 3, archived from the original (PDF) on March 26, 2011, retrieved March 25, 2015
- , enacted October 21, 1998
- ^ Gamboa, Anthony H. (January 4, 2005), B-303495, Office of National Drug Control Policy — Video News Release (PDF), Government Accountability Office, pp. 9–10, archived from the original (PDF) on March 26, 2011, retrieved March 25, 2015
- , enacted October 21, 1998
- ^ PMID 18203679.
- PMID 21084069.
- ^ Barstow, David (2008-04-20). "Message Machine: Behind Analysts, the Pentagon's Hidden Hand". New York Times.
- ^ Sessions, David (2008-04-20). "Onward T.V. Soldiers: The New York Times exposes a multi-armed Pentagon message machine". Slate.
- ^ Barstow, David (2008-05-24). "2 Inquiries Set on Pentagon Publicity Effort". New York Times.
- ^ Rampton, Sheldon (October 17, 2007). "Shared Values Revisited". Center for Media and Democracy.
- ^ "U.S. Reaches Out to Muslim World with Shared Values Initiative". America.gov. January 16, 2003. Archived from the original on October 18, 2011.</
- ^ "Revealed: US spy operation that manipulates social media". The Guardian. 2011-03-17. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
- ^ "Facebook: Most political trolls are American, not Russian". The Daily Telegraph. 12 October 2018.
- ^ a b "Facebook and Twitter Take Down a U.S. Propaganda Operation Targeting Russia, China, and Iran". Vice News. 2022-08-24. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
- ^ a b "Researchers discover sprawling pro-U.S. social media influence campaign". NBC News. 2022-08-24. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
- EuroNews. 2022-09-01. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
- ^ "Researchers caught a pro-US campaign spreading propaganda on social media". The Verge. 2022-08-25. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
- ^ "Facebook, Twitter and Others Remove Pro-U.S. Influence Campaign". The New York Times. 2022-08-24. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
- ^ "Twitter and Meta take down pro-US propaganda campaign". BBC. 2022-08-26. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
- ^ "Twitter aided the Pentagon in its covert online propaganda campaign". The Intercept. 2022-12-20. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
- ^ "Twitter secretly boosted psyops in Middle East, report says". Al Jazeera. 2022-12-21.
- ISBN 978-0-262-62218-9.
- ^ "Putin's on-air Army", TIME 16 March, 2015, pages 44–51
- ^ Julia Ioffe, "What Is Russia Today? A Kremlin propaganda outlet has an identity crisis," Columbia Journalism Review (2010) 49#3 pp 44–49 online
- ^ Julie A. Cassiday, and Emily D. Johnson. "Putin, Putiniana and the question of a post-Soviet cult of personality." Slavonic and East European Review (2010): 681–707. in JSTOR
- ISBN 978-0-7190-6801-0.
- ISBN 978-1-60871-650-0.
- ^ Miguel Vázquez Liñán, "History as a propaganda tool in Putin's Russia," Communist and Post-Communist Studies
- ^ Altheide, David L. "War and Mass Mediated Evidence." Cultural Studies — Critical Methodologies 9 (2009): 14–22.
- ^ a b Garfield, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly 14 (2007): 23–32.
- ^ a b c d e Schleifer, Ron. "Reconstructing Iraq: Winning the Propaganda War in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly (2005): 15–24.
- ^ a b Garfield, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly 14 (2007): 24
- ^ a b Garfield, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly 14 (2007): 26
- ^ a b Shah, Anup (August 1, 2007). "Iraq War Media Reporting, Journalism and Propaganda". Retrieved May 12, 2009.
- ^ Goldstein, Sol. "A Strategic Failure: American Information Control Policy in Occupied Iraq." Military Review 88.2 (Mar. 2008): 58–65.
- ^ Baldor, Lolita C. (November 30, 2005). "U.S. Military Unclear on 'Planted' Stories". Associated Press. Archived from the original on June 30, 2006.
- ^ Baldor, Lolita C. (December 2, 2005). "Pentagon describes Iraq propaganda plan". Associated Press. Archived from the original on December 5, 2005.
- ^ Thrall, A. Trevor. "A Review of: "Weapons of Mass Deception: The Uses of Propaganda in Bush's War on Iraq, by Sheldon Rampton and John Stauber Weapons of Mass Persuasion: Marketing the War Against Iraq, by Paul Rutherford Selling Intervention & War: The Presidency, the..." Political Communication 24.2 (Apr. 2007): 202–207.
- ^ Dan Froomkin, "The Ostrich Approach" Washington Post May 25, 2005
- ^ a b O'Shaughnessy, Nicholas. "Weapons of Mass Seduction: Propaganda, Media and the Iraq War." Journal of Political Marketing 3.4 (2004): 79–104. America: History & Life.
- ^ John, Sue Lockett, et al. "Going Public, Crisis after Crisis: The Bush Administration and the Press from September 11 to Saddam." Rhetoric & Public Affairs 10.2 (Summer2007 2007): 195–219.
- ^ ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2020-04-25.
- SSRN 3019414.
- ^ a b "Russian Active Measures Campaigns And Interference In The 2016 Election. Volume 2: Russia's Use Of Social Media With Additional Views" (PDF). U.S. Government Publishing Office.
Works cited
- Haste, Cate (1977). Keep the Home Fires Burning: Propaganda in the First World War. London.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Knightley, Phillip (2002). The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero and Myth-Maker from the Crimea to Kosovo. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6951-8.
- Sanders, M. L. (1975). "Wellington House and British propaganda during the First World War". The Historical Journal. 18 (1). Cambridge University Press: 119–146. S2CID 159847468.
- Sanders, M. L.; Taylor, Philip M. (1982). British Propaganda During the First World War, 1914–18. London.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Welch, David (2003). "Fakes". In Nicholas J. Cull, David H. Culbert and David Welch (ed.). Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopaedia, 1500 to the Present. ABC-CLIO. pp. 123–124. ISBN 978-1-57607-820-4.
- Wilson, Trevor (1979). "Lord Bryce's investigation into alleged German atrocities in Belgium, 1914–15". Journal of Contemporary History. 14 (3). Sage: 369–383. S2CID 159629719.
Further reading
- Bernays, Edward. "Propaganda". (1928)
- Bytwerk, Randall L. (2004). Bending Spines: The Propagandas of Nazi Germany and the German Democratic Republic. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87013-710-5.
- Cole, Robert. Propaganda in Twentieth Century War and Politics (1996)
- Cole, Robert, ed. Encyclopedia of Propaganda (3 vol 1998)
- Jowett, Garth S. and Victoria O'Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion (6th ed. Sage Publications, 2014). A detailed overview of the history, function, and analyses of propaganda. excerpt and text search
- Kennedy, Greg, and Christopher Tuck, eds. British Propaganda and Wars of Empire: Influencing Friend and Foe 1900–2010 (2014) excerpt and text search
- Le Bon, Gustave, The Crowd: a study of the Popular Mind (1895)
- MacArthur, John R. Second Front: Censorship and Propaganda in the Gulf War. New York: Hill and Wang. (1992)
- O'Donnell, Victoria; Jowett, Garth S. (2005). Propaganda and Persuasion. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4129-0897-9.
- ISBN 978-0-14-004531-4.
- Nelson, Richard Alan (1996). A Chronology and Glossary of Propaganda in the United States. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-29261-3.
- Young, Emma (October 10, 2001). "Psychological warfare waged in Afghanistan". New Scientist. Retrieved 2010-08-05.
- Taylor, Philip M. British Propaganda in the Twentieth Century. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999.
- Thomson, Oliver. Mass Persuasion in History. An Historical Analysis of the Development of Propaganda Techniques. Edinburgh: Paul Harris Publishing, 1977.
- Thomson, Oliver. Easily Led: A History of Propaganda. Stroud: Sutton, 1999.
- U.S, Army (August 31, 1979). "Appendix I: PSYOP Techniques". Psychological Operations Field Manual No. 33-1. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army. Archived from the original on May 24, 2001. Retrieved August 2, 2016.
World wars
- Bergmeier, Horst JP, and Rainer E. Lotz. Hitler's airwaves: the inside story of Nazi radio broadcasting and propaganda (1997).
- Carruth, Joseph. "World War I Propaganda and Its Effects in Arkansas." Arkansas Historical Quarterly (1997): 385–398. in JSTOR
- Cornwall, Mark. "News, Rumour and the Control of Information in Austria‐Hungary, 1914–1918." History 77#249 (1992): 50–64.
- Creel, George. "Propaganda and Morale" American Journal of Sociology (1941) 47#3 pp. 340–351 in JSTOR, Analysis by the head of American propaganda in the First World War
- Doob, Leonard W. "Goebbels' principles of propaganda", Public Opinion Quarterly 14, no. 3 (1950): 419–442. in JSTOR
- Green, Leanne. "Advertising war: Picturing Belgium in First World War publicity", Media, War & Conflict 7.3 (2014): 309–325.
- Gullace, Nicoletta F. "Allied Propaganda and World War I: Interwar Legacies, Media Studies, and the Politics of War Guilt", History Compass 9, no. 9 (2011): 686–700.
- Haste, Cate. Keep the home fires burning: Propaganda in the First World War. Lane, Allen, 1977.
- Herf, Jeffrey. The Jewish Enemy: Nazi Propaganda during World War II and the Holocaust. Harvard University Press, 2009.
- Honey, Maureen. Creating Rosie the Riveter: class, gender, and propaganda during World War II. 1984.
- Horne, John, and Alan Kramer. "German 'Atrocities' and Franco-German Opinion, 1914: The Evidence of German Soldiers' Diaries," Journal of Modern History 66, no. 1 (1994): 1–33. in JSTOR
- Johnson, Niel M. George Sylvester Viereck, German-American Propagandist. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1972. (about World War I)
- Kingsbury, Celia Malone. For Home and Country: World War I Propaganda on the Home Front. University of Nebraska Press, 2010. 308 pp. Describes propaganda directed toward the homes of the American homefront in everything from cookbooks and popular magazines to children's toys.
- Lasswell, Harold D.Propaganda Technique in World War I. 1927.
- ISBN 978-0-405-04755-8.
- Lutz, Ralph Haswell. "Studies of World War Propaganda, 1914-33", Journal of Modern History 5, no. 4 (1933): 496–516. in JSTOR
- Marquis, Alice Goldfarb. "Words as Weapons: Propaganda in Britain and Germany during the First World War", Journal of Contemporary History 13, no. 3 (1978): 467–498. online; also in JSTOR
- Monger, David. Patriotism and Propaganda in First World War Britain: The National War Aims Committee and Civilian Morale (2013) online edition
- Morris, Kate. British Techniques of Public Relations and Propaganda for Mobilizing East and Central Africa During World War II. Edwin Mellen Press, 2000.
- Paddock, Troy. A Call to Arms: Propaganda, Public Opinion, and Newspapers in the Great War (2004)
- Paddock, Troy. World War I and propaganda (Brill, 2014).
- Peterson, Horace Cornelius. Propaganda for war: The campaign against American neutrality, 1914–1917. University of Oklahoma Press, 1939. On the operations of private organizations
- Rhodes, Anthony. Propaganda: the art of persuasion, World War II. 1987.
- Sanders, Michael, and Philip M. Taylor, eds. British Propaganda during the First World War, 1914–1918 (1983)
- Shirer, William L. (1942). Berlin Diary: The Journal of a Foreign Correspondent, 1934–1941. New York: Albert A. Knopf., A primary source
- Squires, James Duane. British Propaganda at Home and in the United States from 1914 to 1917 (Harvard University Press, 1935)
- Thompson, J. Lee. Politicians, the Press, & Propaganda: Lord Northcliffe & the Great War, 1914–1919 (Kent State University Press, 1999), On Britain
- Welch, David. Germany, Propaganda and Total War, 1914–1918 (2000).
Visual propaganda
- Aulich, James. War Posters: Weapons of Mass Communication (2011)
- Bird, William L. and Harry R. Rubenstein. Design for Victory: World War II Poster on the American Home Front (1998)
- Darman, Peter. Posters of World War II: Allied and Axis Propaganda 1939 – 1945 (2011)
- Moore, Colin. Propaganda Prints: A History of Art in the Service of Social and Political Change (2011) excerpt and text search
- Slocombe, Richard. British Posters of the Second World War (2014)
External links
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. (September 2018) |
- Documentation on Early Cold War U.S. Propaganda Activities in the Middle East by the National Security Archive. Collection of 148 documents and overview essay.
- World War II propaganda leaflets: A website about airdropped, shelled or rocket fired propaganda leaflets. Some posters also.
- Canadian Wartime Propaganda – Canadian War Museum
- Northern Vietnamese Propaganda from the U.S. Vietnam War. The largest collection of North Vietnamese propaganda available on-line.
- "North Korea's art of propaganda", BBC, July 29, 2007: images of North Korean propaganda posters
- CBC Radio's "Nazi Eyes On Canada" (1942), series with Hollywood stars promoting Canadian War Bonds
- Over 400 posters from World Wars I & II Archived 2015-01-26 at the Wayback Machine (searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF Archived 2013-04-02 at the Wayback Machine format)
- Psywar.org Archived 2014-03-26 at the Wayback Machine's large collection of propaganda leaflets from various conflicts
- "Mobilizing Movies! The U.S. Signal Corps Goes to War, 1917-1919" (documentary on U.S. film propaganda by the Signal Corps and Committee on Public Information, 2017)
- Stefan Landsberger's Chinese Propaganda Poster Pages
- Bytwerk, Randall, "Nazi and East German Propaganda Guide Page". Calvin University.
- US Navy recruiting posters archive
- Tim Frank Collection of WWII Propaganda Leaflets, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
- Finding Aid to American war posters from the First World War, circa 1914 – circa 1919, The Bancroft Library
- Finding Aid to American war posters from the Second World War, circa 1940 – 1945, The Bancroft Library
- Finding Aid to Soviet poster collection, circa 1939 – 1945, The Bancroft Library
- Aid to Canadian war posters from the First and Second World Wars, circa 1914 – 1945, The Bancroft Library
- Aid to French war posters from the First World War, circa 1914 – 1918, The Bancroft Library
- Finding Aid to French war posters from the Second World War, circa 1939 – circa 1945, The Bancroft Library
- Finding Aid to British war posters from the First World War, circa 1914 – 1918, The Bancroft Library
- Finding Aid to British war posters from the Second World War, circa 1939 – circa 1945, The Bancroft Library
- Finding Aid to British and British Commonwealth war posters from the Second World War, circa 1939 – circa 1945, The Bancroft Library
- Finding Aid to Chinese News Service posters from the Second World War era, circa 1939 – circa 1945, The Bancroft Library
- Finding Aid to the German poster and broadside collection, chiefly from the Nazi party during the Second World War, circa 1930 – circa 1945, The Bancroft Library