Internal border control
Controls imposed on internal borders within a single state or territory include measures taken by governments to monitor
Background
Internal border controls are measures implemented to control the flow of people or goods within a given country. Such measures take a variety of forms ranging from the imposition of border checkpoints to the issuance of internal travel documents and vary depending on the circumstances in which they are implemented. Circumstances resulting in internal border controls include increasing security around border areas (e.g. internal checkpoints in America or Bhutan near border regions), preserving the autonomy of autonomous or minority areas (e.g. border controls between Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, and Sarawak; border controls between Hong Kong, Macau, and mainland China), preventing unrest between ethnic groups (e.g. Northern Ireland's peace walls, border controls in Tibet and Northeastern India), and disputes between rival governments (e.g. between the
During the COVID-19 pandemic, temporary internal border controls were introduced in jurisdictions across the globe. For instance, travel between Australian states and territories was prohibited or restricted by state governments at various points of the pandemic either in conjunction with sporadic lockdowns or as a stand-alone response to COVID-19 outbreaks in neighbouring states.[2][3][4] Internal border controls were also introduced at various stages of Malaysia's Movement Control Order, per which interstate travel was restricted depending on the severity of ongoing outbreaks. Similarly, internal controls were introduced by national authorities within the Schengen Area, though the European Union ultimately rejected the idea of suspending the Schengen Agreement per se.[5][6]
Examples
Asia
Internal border controls exist in many parts of Asia. For example, travellers visiting minority regions in India and China often require special permits to enter.[a] Internal air and rail travel within non-autonomous portions of India and mainland China also generally require travel documents to be checked by government officials as a form of the interior border checkpoint. For such travel within India, Indian citizens may utilise their Voter ID, National Identity Card, passport, or other proof of Indian citizenship whilst Nepali nationals may present any similar proof of Napali citizenship. Meanwhile, for such travel within mainland China, Chinese nationals from the mainland are required to use their national identity cards.
Within China, extensive border controls are maintained for those travelling between the
China also maintains distinct, relaxed border control policies in the
Similarly, China permits nationals of non—visa-exempt ASEAN countries[e] to visit Guilin without a visa for a maximum of 6 days if they travel with an approved tour group and enter China from Guilin Liangjiang International Airport. They may not visit other cities within Guangxi or other parts of Mainland China.[16]
Neither the People's Republic of China nor the Republic of China recognizes the passports issued by the other and neither considers travel between mainland China and areas controlled by the Republic of China[f] as formal international travel. There are arrangements exist for travel between territories controlled by the
Meanwhile, in Bhutan, a microstate accessible by road only through India, there are interior border checkpoints (primarily on the
More generally, authorities in
The Hộ khẩu system in Vietnam is similar to the Hukou system in mainland China. Local authorities issue each household a "household registration book" or sổ hộ khẩu, in which the basic biographical information of each household member is recorded. The sổ hộ khẩu is the ultimate legal proof of residence in Vietnam. Together with the "citizen identification card" or giấy chứng minh nhân dân/căn cước công dân, the sổ hộ khẩu constitutes the most important legal identification document in Vietnam. Modelled after the Chinese hukou system and originally used in urban areas only, hộ khẩu functioned as a way to manage urban growth and limit how many people moved, as well as who moved in and out of the cities.[18] Gradually, the system became a universal method of control as its application expanded to the countryside.[19] Presently, the system defines four types of residence, KT1 through KT4. KT1 is the primary and permanent type of residence and denotes a person's primary residential address. People moving on a semi-permanent basis to another place within the same province or national municipality (within Saigon, for example) need to register for a KT2 residential status at that new address. If this same move happens across provincial borders, then the person has to sign up for a KT3 registration. For migrant workers and students temporarily residing outside of their province or national municipality of permanent residence, they need to apply for a KT4 registration.[18] Navigating this matrix of regulations is tough. But the public security apparatus that manages the hộ khẩu system is also difficult to deal with, especially if one is a poor migrant worker with little to no formal education. Yet hộ khẩu remains absolutely crucial, especially for the poor. It is tied to access to welfare benefits, and, in the case of children, the right to attend public school.[20] For a migrant family in Saigon with no KT3 or KT4 registration, subsidised medical care, poverty assistance, and almost-free schooling are all out of reach.[19] Much like its counterpart in mainland China, the denial of services outside an individual's place of registered residence resulting from this system of internal border control serves to dissuade internal migration.
Another example is the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, which have maintained their own border controls[21] since joining Malaysia in 1963. The internal border control is asymmetrical; while Sabah and Sarawak impose immigration control on Malaysian citizens from other states, there is no corresponding border control in Peninsular Malaysia, and Malaysians from Sabah and Sarawak have unrestricted right to live and work in the Peninsular. For social and business visits less than three months, Malaysian citizens may travel between the Peninsular, Sabah and Sarawak using the Malaysian identity card (MyKad) or Malaysian passport, while for longer stays in Sabah and Sarawak they are required to have an Internal Travel Document or a passport with the appropriate residential permit.
The most restrictive internal border controls are in North Korea. Citizens are not allowed to travel outside their areas of residence without explicit authorisation, and access to the capital city of Pyongyang is heavily restricted.[22][23] Similar restrictions are imposed on tourists, who are only allowed to leave Pyongyang on government-authorised tours to approved tourist sites.
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Domestic Immigration stamp permitting entry into the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India.
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Sample of a One Way Travel Permit for internal emigration from mainland China to Hong Kong or Macau.
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Sample of a Special Economic Zone visa issued on arrival in China
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Data page of a booklet typeinternal travel documentissued by Taiwan authorities to a Mainland Chinese resident.
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Malaysian entry stamps specify which jurisdictions (i.e. West or Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, and Sarawak) the bearer is permitted to enter, and there are immigration checks when entering each.
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The entrance to the building of theShenzhen Bay Control Point, an internal border checkpoint between Hong Kong and the Chinese mainland
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The Tibet Travel Permit, required to enter the Tibet Autonomous Region, is an example of internal border controls in minority regions of China and India. Other similar documents include Restricted Area Permits and Protected Area permits primarily issued to enter India's northeast.
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Front and back of mainland residence permits for Chinese citizens from Hong Kong and Macau (left) and Taiwanese nationals from areas administered by the Republic of China (right)
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Internal travel document issued to Chinese citizens from the mainland for travel to and from Hong Kong and Macau
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Exit endorsements affixed to the back of an internal travel document issued to Chinese citizens from the mainland for travel to and from Hong Kong or Macau
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An Internal travel document issued to Taiwanese nationals from areas administered by the Republic of China to travel to and from the mainland
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Internal travel documentfor Chinese citizens of Hong Kong or Macau to enter the mainland.
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The inside pages of hukou booklet in China.
Europe
An example from Europe is the implementation of border controls on travel between
Another complex border control situation in Europe pertains to the United Kingdom. Whilst the
In the aftermath of
An unusual example of internal border controls pertains to customs enforcement within the Schengen area. Even though borders are generally invisible, the existence of areas within the Schengen area but outside the
The
Much like relations between Jewish settlers in Israel and the native Palestinian population, strained intercommunal relations in Northern Ireland between Irish Catholics and the descendants of Protestant settlers from England and Scotland have resulted in de facto internal checkpoints. The peace lines are an internal border security measure to separate predominantly republican and nationalist Catholic neighbourhoods from predominantly loyalist and unionist Protestant neighbourhoods. They have been in place in some form or another since the end of The Troubles in 1998, with the Good Friday Agreement. The majority of peace walls are located in Belfast, but they also exist in Derry, Portadown, and Lurgan,[44] with more than 32 kilometres of walls in Northern Ireland.[45] The peace lines range in length from a few hundred metres to over 5 kilometres. They may be made of iron, brick, steel or a combination of the three and are up to 8 metres high.[46][44] Some have gates in them (sometimes staffed by police) that allow passage during daylight but are closed at night.
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Banner opposing post-Brexit border controls between Great Britain and Northern Ireland seen in Sandy Row (March 2021)
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Graffiti in Belfast opposing an "Irish Sea border" (February 2021)
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A 5.5m high peace line along Springmartin Road in Belfast, with a fortified police station at one end
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The peace line along Cupar Way in Belfast, seen from the predominantly Protestant side
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The peace line at Bombay Street/Cupar Way in Belfast, seen from the predominantly Catholic side
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Gates in a peace line in West Belfast
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Israeli checkpoint outside the Palestinian city of Ramallah. August 2004
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Vehicles queuing atKalandiacheckpoint in Palestine, August 2004
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Central entry checkpoint to the closed city of Seversk, Tomsk Oblast, Russia.
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As a consequence of Svalbard's unique immigration status and exclusion from the rest of Norway for border control purposes, the city of Barentsburg is predominantly Russian and hosts the world's second northernmost statue of Lenin (the northernmost is in Pyramiden).
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Border post between France and Andorra, a microstate that de facto follows Schengen immigration policies and utilises the Euro as its national currency yet is not a part of the European Union VAT and customs areas.
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TheItaly-Switzerland border is an internal Schengen border, but as seen at this border crossing at Chiasso, there are border control facilities since Switzerland maintains its own customs and tax area.
North America
Contemporary
Multiple types of internal border controls exist in the United States. While the American territories of
The
The city of Hyder, Alaska has also been subject to internal border controls since America chose to stop regulating arrivals in Hyder from British Columbia. Since travellers exiting Hyder into Stewart, British Columbia are subject to Canadian border controls, it is theoretically possible for someone to accidentally enter Hyder from Canada without their travel documents and then to face difficulties since both America and Canada would subject them to border controls that require travel documents. At the same time, however, the northern road connecting Hyder to uninhabited mountain regions of British Columbia is equipped with neither American nor Canadian border controls, meaning that tourists from Canada proceeding northwards from Hyder are required to complete Canadian immigration formalities when they return to Stewart despite never having cleared American immigration.
Historical
In the past, internal border control measures were utilised by authorities in North America to control the movements of Indigenous or enslaved persons. Such systems typically took the form of an internal passport required for Indigenous or enslaved individuals to travel beyond their reserve or plantation.
In 1885 the "pass system" of internal border controls targeting Indigenous peoples was instituted in Canada. Introduced at the time of the North-West Rebellion, it remained in force until 1951.[51] Any Indigenous person caught outside his Indian reserve without a pass issued by an Indian agent was returned to the reserve or incarcerated.
Throughout the
Whereas great disorders, insolencies and burglaries are oft times raised and committed in the night time by Indian, Negro, and Molatto Servants and Slaves to the Disquiet and hurt of her Majesty, No Indian, Negro, or Molatto is to be from Home after 9 o'clock.
Notices emphasizing the curfew were published in The New Hampshire Gazette in 1764 and 1771.[52]
Internal passports were required for African Americans in the southern
Realm of New Zealand
Tokelau, Niue, and the Cook Islands (Cook Islands Māori: Kūki 'Āirani)[56] maintain independent and less restrictive border controls from New Zealand. The Cook Islands further maintain a separate nationality law. Additionally, border controls for Tokelau are complicated by the fact that the territory is, for the most part, only accessible via Samoa.
Apartheid-era South Africa
In South Africa prior to the end of
- the person had been born there and resided there always since birth;
- the person had laboured continuously for ten years in any agreed area for any employer, or lived continuously in any such area for fifteen years;
The Black (Natives) Laws Amendment Act of 1952 amended the 1945 Native Urban Areas Consolidation Act, stipulating that all black people over the age of 16 were required to carry passes and that no black person could stay in an urban area more than 72 hours unless allowed to by Section 10.[60] The Natives (Abolition of Passes and Co-ordination of Documents) Act of 1952, commonly known as the Pass Laws Act, repealed the many regional pass laws and instituted one nationwide pass law, which made it compulsory for all black South Africans over the age of 16 to carry the "passbook" at all times within white areas. The law stipulated where, when, and for how long a person could remain.[61]
The document was similar to an
See also
- Border barrier
- Airspace
- Air sovereignty
- Illegal entry
- United States Border Patrol
- Security guard
- Illegal immigration
- Immigration law
- Maritime boundary
- Freedom of movement
- Refugees
Notes
- ^ In India, special permits are required to travel across much of the country's north-east and requirements may vary within a given state. Special provisions are occasionally made for individuals from Bhutan or Nepal proceeding to or from their home country. Additionally, individuals arriving in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands from elsewhere in India receive passport stamps (see gallery at end of the section), even though only foreigners are typically subject to permit requirements.
Permits issued for minority regions in India include:
- Restricted Area Permits and Protected Area Permits for foreigners in portions of north-eastern India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
- Inner Line Permits for Indian citizens
two categoriesof permits are issued:- The Tibet Travel Permits (Republic of China) to enter the region
- The Alien Travel Permit required for holders of the Tibet Travel Permit to travel outside major urban and tourist areas of the region
- The Military Permit (or Border Permit)[7] is required for travel to Ngari (Tibetan: མངའ་རིས་ས་ཁུལ་; Chinese: 阿里), Nyingchi (Tibetan: ཉིང་ཁྲི་ས།; Chinese: 林芝), and Nagqu (Tibetan: ནག་ཆུ།; Chinese: 那曲)
- Home Return Permit (simplified Chinese: 回乡证; traditional Chinese: 回鄉證; pinyin: Huíxiāngzhèng) are required for Hong Kong or Macau Permanent Residents who are Chinese citizens to cross the border, whilst mainlanders require a Two-Way Permit (Chinese: 双程证).
- ^ The following documents are currently issued for this purpose:
- For mainlanders emigrating to either of the two Special Administrative Regions, authorities in the mainland issue the One Way Travel Permit (Chinese: 单程证; pinyin: Dānchéngzhèng). As the policy is designed to curtail emigrationfrom the mainland rather than immigration to either SAR, issuance is exclusively the responsibility of authorities on the mainland.
- Since September 2018, authorities in the mainland have issued the Residence Permit for Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan Residents (Chinese: 港澳台居民居住证; pinyin: Gǎng-Aò-Tái Jūmín Jūzhùzhèng) authorising Chinese citizens from Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwanese nationals to reside in the mainland. The permit is designed to resemble the national identity card issued to individuals with household registration on the mainland and enables holders to access public and private sector services that require a national identity card number.
- For mainlanders emigrating to either of the two Special Administrative Regions, authorities in the mainland issue the
- ^ Nationals of the following countries are ineligible for the SEZ visa:[11]
- ^ Non-visa-exempt ASEAN countries are:
- ^ The area under the definition consists of:
- ^ Documents required for travel between the PRC and ROC are:
- The Mainland Travel Permit for Taiwan Residents (simplified Chinese: 台胞证; traditional Chinese: 臺胞證; pinyin: Táibāozhèng) issued by the PRC for entry to the mainland, which is also valid but not mandatory for entry to Hong Kong and Macau
- The : Rùtáizhèngg) issued to mainlanders by the ROC
- The Fujian as well as Penghufor travel to and from the mainland.
- ^ These are Greenland and the Faroe Islands. These areas do not maintain strict immigration controls with the Schengen Area, but border controls are sporadically enforced for customs purposes.
- ^
- Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, all
- In Leningrad Oblast – all Russian islands of Gulf of Finland, except Gogland, and 20-km strip along South coast of Gulf of Finland.
- The Republic of North Ossetia-Alania, 85% of territory. Transit to border with Georgia and to border with South Ossetia are possible along the main roads. Tsey Gorgeis opened for foreigners from 2012.
- Part of Kaliningrad Oblast, approx. 15%.
- Part of Moscow Oblast, approx. 10%.
- Part of Arkhangelsk Oblast, include Novaya Zemlya, approx. 30%.
- Part of Murmansk Oblast, approx. 15%. Transit to/from Norway is possible by main road.
- Part of Kamchatka Krai.
- Part of Primorsky Krai.
- ^ This does not apply to accompanying spouses and minor children or members of travel groups. In addition, a valid identification document has to be produced to the hotel manager or staff.[35]
- Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting. In response to the European migrant crisis, several countries set up internal controls. In 2019, Denmark, worried about the bombings in Sweden, introduced passport controls to Swedish citizens for the first time since the 1950s.[39]
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Further reading
- Susan Harbage Page & Inéz Valdez (17 April 2011). "Residues of Border Control", Southern Spaces
- ISBN 0-316-73248-6
- Aristide Zolberg (2006). A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-02218-1
- ISBN 0-316-73248-6
- Ruben Rumbaut & Walter Ewing (Spring 2007). "The Myth of Immigrant Criminality and the Paradox of Assimilation: Incarceration Rates among Native and Foreign-Born Men", The Immigration Policy Center.
- Bryan Balin (2008). State Immigration Legislation and Immigrant Flows: An Analysis The Johns Hopkins University
- Douglas S. Massey (September 2005). "Beyond the Border Buildup: Towards a New Approach to Mexico-U.S. Migration", Immigration Policy Center, the American Immigration Law Foundation
- IPC Special Report (November 2005). "Economic Growth & Immigration: Bridging the Demographic Divide", Immigration Policy Center, the American Immigration Law Foundation
- American Immigration Council (April 2014). "Immigrant Women in the United States: A Demographic Portrait"
- Jill Esbenshade (Summer 2007). "Division and Dislocation: Regulating Immigration through Local Housing Ordinances". American Immigration Council
- Jeffrey S. Passel & Roberto Suro (September 2005). "Rise, Peak and Decline: Trends in U.S. Immigration". Pew Hispanic Center
- Jeffrey S. Passel (March 2005). "Estimates of the Size and Characteristics of the Undocumented Population". Pew Hispanic Center
- Jeffrey S. Passel (March 2007). "Growing Share of Immigrants Choosing Naturalization". Pew Hispanic Center
- This article incorporates public domain material from Report for Congress: Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition (PDF). Congressional Research Service.
- UNCTAD's Classification of Non-Tariff Measures (2012) report