Islam during the Qing dynasty

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Part of a series on
Islam in China
Top of the Great Mosque of Xi'an
History
By dynasty
Rebellions and revolts
Post-dynastic China
Major figures
Culture
  • Cities
  • Regions
Groups
 Islam portal • flag China portal

During the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1644–1912), Islam was a significant religion in Northwestern China and Yunnan. There were five major Muslim rebellions during the Qing period. The first and last rebellions were caused by sectarian infighting between rival Sufi Muslim orders.

History

Anti-Qing rebellions

Ming loyalist Muslims

After the

Milayin rebellion in order to drive the Qing out and restore the Ming Prince of Yanchang Zhu Sichuan to the throne as the emperor.[2] The Muslim Ming loyalists were supported by Hami's Sultan Sa'id Baba and his son Prince Turumtay.[3][4][5] The Muslim Ming loyalists were joined by Tibetan and Han peoples in the revolt.[6] After fierce fighting, and negotiations, a peace agreement was agreed on in 1649, and Milayan and Ding nominally pledged allegiance to the Qing and were given ranks as members of the Qing military.[7] When other Ming loyalists in southern China made a resurgence and the Qing were forced to withdraw their forces from Gansu to fight them, Milayan and Ding once again took up arms and rebelled against the Qing.[8]
The Muslim Ming loyalists were then crushed by the Qing with 100,000 of them, including Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Turumtay killed in battle.

The Confucian Hui Muslim scholar Ma Zhu (1640-1710) served with the southern Ming loyalists against the Qing.[9] Zhu Yu'ai, the Ming Prince Gui was accompanied by Hui refugees when he fled from Huguang to the Burmese border in Yunnan and as a mark of their defiance against the Qing and loyalty to the Ming, they changed their surname to Ming.[10]

Early revolts in Xinjiang, Shaanxi and Gansu

The

Galdan, who he falsely claimed converted to Islam. Kangxi falsely claimed that Galdan had spurned and turned his back on Buddhism and the Dalai Lama and that he was plotting to install a Muslim as ruler of China after invading it in a conspiracy with Chinese Muslims. Kangxi also distrusted Muslims of Turfan and Hami.[11]

From 1755–1757, the

Lake Balkash
in 1765.

The

invasion by Jahangir Khoja was preceded by another Manchu official, Binjing who raped a Muslim daughter of the Kokan aqsaqal from 1818 to 1820. The Qing sought to cover up the rape of Uyghur women by Manchus to prevent anger against their rule from spreading among the Uyghurs.[17]

Professor of Chinese and Central Asian History at Georgetown University, James A. Millward wrote that foreigners often mistakenly think that Ürümqi was originally a Uyghur city and that the Chinese destroyed its Uyghur character and culture, however, Ürümqi was founded as a Chinese city by Han and Hui (Tungans), and it is the Uyghurs who are new to the city.[18]

Late 19th century map of Hajj pilgrimage routes, by land and by sea, from China to Mecca.

In Gansu, disagreements between the adherents of Khafiya and Jahriya, two forms of Sufism as well as perceived mismanagement, corruption, and anti-Muslim attitudes of the Qing officials resulted in attempted uprisings by Hui and Salar followers of the Jahriya in 1781[19][20] and 1784, but they were easily and promptly suppressed,[21] with the help of the Khafiya. Han, Hui, and Dongxiang joined the Salar Jahriyya in the 1781 revolt against the Qing.[22]

In the Jahriyya revolt sectarian violence between two suborders of the Naqshbandi Sufis, the Jahriyya Sufi Muslims and their rivals, the Khafiyya Sufi Muslims, led to a Jahriyya Sufi Muslim rebellion which the Qing dynasty in China crushed with the help of the Khafiyya Sufi Muslims.[23]

More than 1000 Hui Muslim children and women from the Sufi Jahriya order in eastern Gansu were massacred by Qing Banner general Li Shiyao during a 1784 uprising by Hui Jahriyya Muslims Zhang Wenqing and Tian Wu, 3 years after an early 1781 rebellion by Salar Sufi Jahriyya members when the Qing executed Jahriya leader Ma Mingxin. The Qing government under Qianlong then ordered the extermination of the Sufi Jahriya "New Teaching" and banned adoption of non-Muslim children by Muslims, converting non-Muslims to Muslim and banning new mosques from being built. Some Sufi Khafiya "Old Teaching" Muslims still served in Qing forces in fighting against the Jahriya Sufi "New Teaching" Muslims despite the fact that those laws forbdding them from spreading their religion applied to them too.[24] Li Shiyao was a member of the Qing Eight Banners and related to the Qing royal family.

Kashgaria was able to be free of Qing control during an invasion by

leading a rebellion against the Qing. In Kashgaria, this was followed by another invasion in 1829 by Mahommed Ali Khan and Yusuf Khoja, the brother of Jahangir. In 1846, a new Khoja revolt in Kashgar under Kath Tora led to his accession to rulership of Kashgar as an authoritarian ruler. His reign, however, was brief, for at the end of seventy-five days, on the approach of the Chinese, he fled back to Kokand amid the jeers of the inhabitants.[26]

The last of the Khoja revolts was in 1857 under Wali Khan, a self-indulgent debaucherer, and the murderer of the famous German explorer, Adolf Schlagintweit. Wali Khan had invaded Kashgar from his base in Kokand, capturing Kashgar. Aside from his execution of Adolf Schlagintweit, his cruelty found many other reflections in the local legends. It is said that he killed so many innocent Muslims that four or six minarets were built from the skulls of the victims (kala minara); or that once, when an artisan made a sabre for him, he tested the weapon by cutting off the artisan's son head, who came with his father and was standing nearby, after that with words " it's a really good sabre " he presented artisan with a gift. This reign of tyranny did not make Kashgarians miss the Khoja too much when he was defeated by Qing troops after ruling the city for four months and forced to flee back to Kokand.[26]

The local Muslims living under Yaqub Beg's rule in Kashgaria after he took over the area from the Qing, found the conditions under Yaqub Beg to be oppressive and recalled Qing rule favorably and in a positive manner.[27]

Panthay Rebellion

Main article: Panthay Rebellion

The

Burma.[29]

The Manchu official Shuxing'a started an anti-Muslim massacre which led to the Panthay Rebellion. Shuxing'a developed a deep hatred of Muslims after an incident where he was stripped naked and nearly lynched by a mob of Muslims. He ordered several Muslim rebels to be slow sliced to death.[30][31] Tariq Ali wrote about the real incident in one of his novels, claiming the Muslims who had nearly lynched Shuxing'a were not Hui Muslims but belonged to another ethnicity but nevertheless the Manchu official blamed all Muslims for the incident.[32][33]

Dungan Revolt

Main article: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

The Dungan Revolt by the

Imperial Russia
.

Rebellions

During the mid-nineteenth century, the

Panthay rebellion,[29][34] and several million died in the Dungan Revolt[34]

However, Muslims in other parts of China proper like in the east and southern provinces who did not revolt, were not affected at all by the rebellion, and experienced no genocide, nor did they seek to revolt. It was reported that Muslim villages in Henan province, which was next to Shaanxi, were totally unaffected and relations between Han and Hui continued normally. The Hui Muslim population of Beijing was unaffected by the Muslim rebels during the Dungan Revolt.[35]

Elisabeth Allès wrote that the relationship between Hui Muslim and Han peoples continued normally in the Henan area, with no ramifications or consequences from the Muslim rebellions of other areas. Allès wrote in the document "Notes on some joking relationships between Hui and Han villages in Henan" published by French Centre for Research on Contemporary China that "The major Muslim revolts in the middle of the nineteenth century which involved the Hui in Shaanxi, Gansu and Yunnan, as well as the Uyghurs in Xinjiang, do not seem to have had any direct effect on this region of the central plain."[36]

Many Muslims like

Khafiya
sect, and they helped Qing massacre Jahariyya rebels. General Zuo moved the Han around Hezhou out of the area and relocated them as a reward for the Muslims there helping Qing kill other Muslim rebels.

These pro-Qing Hui warlords rose to power by their fighting against Muslim rebels.[37] The sons of the defected Muslim warlords of the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) helped the Qing crush the Muslim rebels in the Dungan Revolt (1895–1896).[38]

In 1895, another Dungan Revolt broke out, and loyalist Muslims like Dong Fuxiang, Ma Anliang, Ma Guoliang, Ma Fulu, and Ma Fuxiang suppressed and massacred the rebel Muslims led by Ma Dahan, Ma Yonglin, and Ma Wanfu. The 1895 revolt was similar to the 1781 Jahriyya revolt in that it began with fighting between different Muslim factions,[39] and that they had tried to resolve the dispute between the factions through the legal system of China before turning to violence.[40]

A Muslim army called the Kansu Braves led by General Dong Fuxiang fought for the Qing dynasty against the foreigners during the Boxer Rebellion. They included well known Generals like Ma Anliang, Ma Fulu, and Ma Fuxiang.

In Yunnan the Qing armies only massacred the Muslims who had rebelled, and spared Muslims who took no part in the uprising.[41]

In addition to sending Han exiles convicted of crimes to Xinjiang to be slaves of Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to China proper where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russian, Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to the Han banner garrison in Guangzhou.[42] In the 1780s after the Muslim rebellion in Gansu started by Zhang Wenqing 張文慶 was defeated, Muslims like Ma Jinlu 馬進祿 were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers.[43] The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and to become slaves to Han bannermen in Han Banner garrisons in China proper.[44]

The Hui Muslim community was divided in its support for the 1911

Xinhai Revolution. The Hui Muslims of Shaanxi supported the revolutionaries and the Hui Muslims of Gansu supported the Qing. The native Hui Muslims of Xi'an (Shaanxi province) joined the Han Chinese revolutionaries in slaughtering the entire 20,000 Manchu population of Xi'an.[45][46][47] The native Hui Muslims of Gansu province led by general Ma Anliang sided with the Qing and prepared to attack the anti-Qing revolutionaries of Xi'an city. Only some wealthy Manchus who were ransomed and Manchu females survived. Wealthy Han Chinese seized Manchu girls to become their slaves[48] and poor Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women to be their wives.[49] Young pretty Manchu girls were also seized by Hui Muslims of Xi'an during the massacre and brought up as Muslims.[50]

Culture

The dome of Qi Jingyi's Gongbei (shrine) seen over the wall of Hongyuan Park in Linxia

In the Qing dynasty, Muslims had many mosques in the large cities, with particularly important ones in

Arabic
-language inscriptions being the chief distinguishing feature. Many Muslims held government positions, including positions of importance, particularly in the army.

The Qing treated Han and Hui civilians in the same legal category. Both Han and Hui were moved from the walled city in Beijing to the outside,[51] while only Bannermen could reside inside the walled city.

The origin of Hui in Ürümqi is often indicated by the names of their Mosques.[52]

Painting depicting a Chinese Muslim, during the reign of the Qing dynasty.

Sufi orders (menhuan
) included:

Chinese Hui Sufis developed a new type of organization called the menhuan, centered around a lineage of Sufi masters.[60][61]

The Hui Muslim scholar Liu Zhi wrote about Sufism in Chinese and translated Sufi writings from their original languages.[62][63] The Hui Muslim scholar Wang Daiyu used Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist terminology in his Islamic writings.[64] Liu Zhi and Wang Daiyu were both Gedimu (non-Sufi) Muslims and argued that Muslims could be loyal both to the Mandate of Heaven and Allah, justifying Muslim obedience to the Qing government, since Allah was reflected by the Mandate of Haven in this world.[65] Liu Zhi and Wang Daiyu's writings became part of the Han Kitab, a Chinese Islamic text which synthesized Islam and Confucianism, using Confucian terminology to explain Islam.[66] Liu Zhi met and talked with the Vice Minister of the Board of War regarding Islam, convincing him that Confucian principles were supported by Islam so that it should not be regarded as heretical.[67] Liu Zhi used neo-Confucianism in his Islamic work titled as "The Philosophy of Arabia", and it was written that the book "illuminates" Confucianism, while Confucianism was at odds with Buddhism and Taoism, in a preface to the book by the non-Muslim Vice-Minister of the Board of Propriety.[68]

Migrations

See also: Chin Haw

The Chin Haw are a group of Chinese immigrants who arrived in Thailand via Burma or Laos. Most of them were from Yunnan and about a third were Muslim.

In the 19th century, Chinese Muslims also became some of the first Muslims in New Zealand (See Islam in New Zealand). They came as golddiggers to work in the Dunstan gold fields in Otago in 1868.[69]

Christian missionary activities

Christian missionaries baptizing a 79-year-old Chinese Muslim. (No later than 1908).

As the presence of Christian missionaries of various sects increased in China after the Opium Wars, they became interested in converting China's Muslims to Christianity. A significant amount of research was dedicated to the Muslim "problem", as Marshall Broomhall called it, but the effort resulted in no large-scale conversions.

Under the "fundamental laws" of China, one section is titled "Wizards, Witches, and all Superstitions, prohibited." The

beys.[70]

See also

Notes

  1. ISBN 978-0804729338
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  2. ISBN 978-0295800554
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  3. ISBN 978-0295800554
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  4. ^
    ISBN 978-0804729338
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  5. ISBN 978-3447040914
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  6. ISBN 978-0295800554
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  7. ISBN 978-0520048041
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  8. ISBN 978-0520048041
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014. milayin.
  9. ISBN 978-1317938521
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  10. ISBN 978-1-136-80940-8
    .
  11. ISBN 978-0674042025
    .
  12. ISBN 0804797927
    .
  13. ISBN 9004145508
    .
  14. ^ Wang, Ke (2017). "Between the "Ummah" and "China"：The Qing Dynasty's Rule over Xinjiang Uyghur Society" (PDF). Journal of Intercultural Studies. 48. Kobe University: 204. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-06-01. Retrieved 2019-06-01.
  15. ISBN 978-0231139243
    .
  16. ISBN 978-0231139243
    .
  17. ISBN 0804797927
    .
  18. ISBN 978-0804729338
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  19. ISBN 978-3447040914
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  20. S2CID 143843569
    .
  21. S2CID 143843569
    .
  22. ISBN 978-3447040914
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  23. ISBN 978-0-7914-0113-2
    .
  24. ISBN 0-295-97644-6
    .
  25. ISBN 978-0804729338
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  26. ^ a b Kim, Hodong. Holy War in China: The Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia, 1864-1877.
  27. ISBN 978-0804729338
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  28. ^ Forbes, Andrew ; Henley, David (2011). Traders of the Golden Triangle. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B006GMID5K
  29. ^
    ISBN 1-74059-687-0
  30. ISBN 0804751595
    .
  31. ISBN 978-0742571341
    .
  32. ISBN 978-1480448582
    .
  33. ISBN 978-1844676118
    .
  34. ^ a b Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. 2. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
    ISBN 0521497124
  35. ISBN 978-962-209-255-6
    .
  36. ^ Allès, Elizabeth (17 January 2007) [September–October 2003]. "Notes on some joking relationships between Hui and Han villages in Henan". China Perspectives. 2003 (49) (Online ed.): 6. Retrieved 2011-07-20.
  37. ^ Lipman, Jonathan N. “Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China: The Ma Family Warlords of Gansu.” Modern China, vol. 10, no. 3, 1984, p. 294. JSTOR, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/189017?seq=10#page_scan_tab_contents.
  38. ^ Lipman, Jonathan N. “Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China: The Ma Family Warlords of Gansu.” Modern China, vol. 10, no. 3, 1984, p. 298. JSTOR, JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/189017?seq=14#page_scan_tab_contents.
  39. S2CID 143843569
    .
  40. S2CID 143843569
    .
  41. ISBN 978-0-7007-1026-3
    . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  42. ^ Yongwei, MWLFZZ, FHA 03-0188-2740-032, QL 43.3.30 (April 26, 1778).
  43. ^ Šande 善德, MWLFZZ, FHA 03-0193-3238-046, QL 54.5.6 (May 30, 1789) and Šande, MWLFZZ, FHA 03-0193-3248-028, QL 54.6.30 (August 20, 1789).
  44. ^ 1789 Mongol Code (Ch. 蒙履 Menggu lüli, Mo. Mongγol čaγaǰin-u bičig), (Ch. 南省，給駐防爲, Mo. emün-e-tü muji-dur čölegüljü sergeyilen sakiγči quyaγ-ud-tur boγul bolγ-a). Mongol Code 蒙例 (Beijing: Lifan yuan, 1789; reprinted Taipei: Chengwen chubanshe, 1968), p. 124. Batsukhin Bayarsaikhan, Mongol Code (Mongγol čaγaǰin - u bičig), Monumenta Mongolia IV (Ulaanbaatar: Centre for Mongol Studies, National University of Mongolia, 2004), p. 142.
  45. ^ Backhouse, Sir Edmund; Otway, John; Bland, Percy (1914). Annals & Memoirs of the Court of Peking: (from the 16th to the 20th Century) (reprint ed.). Houghton Mifflin. p. 209.
  46. ^ The Atlantic, Volume 112. Atlantic Monthly Company. 1913. p. 779.
  47. ^ The Atlantic Monthly, Volume 112. Atlantic Monthly Company. 1913. p. 779.
  48. ISBN 0295980400
    .
  49. ISBN 0295980400
    .
  50. ISBN 9780828100052
    .
  51. ISBN 978-0804729338
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  52. ISBN 978-0804729338
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  53. ^ Gladney (1999)
  54. ISBN 978-1576075166
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  55. ISBN 978-1134360963
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  56. ISBN 978-0203166642
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  57. ISSN 0073-0483. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help
    )
  58. ISBN 978-0810865402
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  59. ISBN 978-0810863439
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  60. ISBN 978-0295800554
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  61. ISBN 978-1134360963
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  62. ISBN 978-0810863439
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  63. ISBN 978-0810865402
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  64. ISBN 978-0791446379
    . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  65. ^ Masumi, Matsumoto (2004). "The Completion of the Idea of Dual Loyalty Towards China and Islam". Etudes orientales. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  66. ^ Garnaut, Anthony. "Chinese Muslim literature" (PDF). Contemporary China Studies - School of Interdisciplinary Area Studies - University of Oxford. Contemporary China Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 May 2014. Retrieved 25 July 2014.
  67. ISBN 978-9004071643. Retrieved 24 April 2014.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link
    )
  68. ^ Murata, Sachiko. Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light (PDF) (illustrated, reprint, annotated ed.). State University of New York Press. p. 25. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-05-01. Retrieved 24 April 2014. Alt URL Archived 2011-06-07 at the Wayback Machine
  69. ^ "Muslim Community in New Zealand". Archived from the original on 2017-05-27. Retrieved 2008-01-09.
  70. ^ Robert Samuel Maclay (1861). Life among the Chinese: with characteristic sketches and incidents of missionary operations and prospects in China. Carlton & Porter. p. 336. Retrieved 2011-07-06. mohammedan slaves to beys.

References

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty&oldid=1219667773"