Mongol invasions of Tibet

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Tibet under Mongol rule, 1240-1354
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There were several Mongol invasions of Tibet. The earliest is the alleged plot to invade Tibet by

Drogon Chogyal Phagpa, nephew of Sakya Pandita. The Sakya-Mongol administrative system and Yuan administrative rule over the region
lasted until the mid-14th century, when the Yuan dynasty began to crumble.

In the early 17th century, the

Qing conquest of Mongolia and Dzungaria
.

Invasion

Prior to 1240

According to one traditional Tibetan account, the Mongol emperor Genghis Khan plotted to invade Tibet in 1206, but was dissuaded when the Tibetans promised to pay tribute to the Mongols.[9] Modern scholars consider the account to be anachronistic and factually wrong.[10] Genghis' campaign was targeted at the Tangut kingdom of Western Xia, not Tibet, and there was certainly no tribute being paid to the Mongols prior to 1240.[11] There is no evidence of interaction between the two nations prior to Doorda Darkhan's invasion in 1240.[12]

The earliest real Mongol contact with the ethnic Tibetan people came in 1236, when a Tibetan chief near Wenxian submitted to the Mongols campaigning against the Jin dynasty in Sichuan.

1240-1241 invasion

Doorda Darkhan's Tibetan campaign
Date1240
Location
Tibet
Result Mongols withdrew. All Mongol generals were called back to Mongolia to appoint a successor to Ogedai Khan.
Belligerents
Mongol Empire Tibet
Commanders and leaders
Doorda Darkhan [ru; ja] Leaders of the Rwa-sgreng monastery
Strength
30,000 soldiers Unknown
Casualties and losses
Minimal (or no loss) 500

In 1240, the Mongol Prince

Kadampa monasteries of Rwa-sgreṅ and Rgyal-lha-khang.[6] The campaign was smaller than the full-scale invasions used by the Mongols against large empires. According to Turrell V. Wylie, that much is in agreement among Tibetologists. However, the purpose of invasion is disputed among Tibetan scholars, partly because of the abundance of anachronistic and factually erroneous sources.[7]

However, modern studies find that the oldest sources credit the Mongol scouts with burning Rgyal-lha-khang only, while a large number of Rwa-sgreng monks were slain.

sTag-lung
and ’Bri-gung, with their old link to the Western Xia dynasty, were spared because Doorda himself was a Tangut Buddhist.[18] The ’Bri-gung abbot or, according to Petech, the Rwa-sgreng abbot, suggested the Mongols had invited the Sakya hierarch, Sakya Pandita.[19] After he met Godan, Sakya Pandita died there leaving his two nephews. Sakya Pandita convinced other monasteries in Central Tibet to align with the Mongols. The Mongols kept them as hostages referring symbolic surrender of Tibet.[20]

One view, considered the most traditional, is that the attack was a retaliation on Tibet caused by the Tibetan refusal to pay tribute.[2] Wylie points out that the Tibetans stopped paying tribute in 1227, while Doorda Darkhan's invasion was in 1240, suggesting that the Mongols, not known for their empathy, would not wait over a decade to respond. The text from which this claim is based on also makes other anachronistic mistakes, insisting that Genghis was planning to attack Tibet prior to Doorda Darkhan's invasion, when the real campaign was against the Tangut kingdom of Western Xia.[2]

Another theory, supported by Wylie, is that the military action was a reconnaissance campaign meant to evaluate the political situation in Tibet.[21] The Mongols hoped to find a single monarch with whom they could threaten into submission, but instead found a Tibet that was religiously and politically divided, without a central government.[21]

A third view is that the troops were sent as raids and "looting parties", and that the goal of the campaign was to pillage the "wealth amassed in the Tibetan monasteries".[22] This is disputed, as the Mongols deliberately avoided attacking certain monasteries, a questionable decision if their only goal was profit.[23]

Whatever the purpose of the invasion, the Mongols withdrew in 1241, as all the Mongol princes were recalled back to Mongolia in preparation for the appointment of a successor to Ogedai Khan.[24] In 1244, the Mongols returned to Tibet. They invited Sakya Pandita to Godan's camp, where he agreed to capitulate Tibet, after the Mongols threatened a full-scale invasion of the region.

1244 invasion under Möngke Khan

The Mongol Empire in 1259

Sa-skya Pandita died in 1251 and his master Godan Khan possibly died at the same time (or, according to other sources, after 1253). Möngke Khan became Khagan in the same year. Some sources say there was a Mongolian invasion in 1251, in retribution for a failure to pay tribute, or in 1251-2 'to take formal possession of the country'. In order to strengthen his control over Tibet, Möngke made Qoridai commander of the Mongol and Han troops in Turpan in 1251. Two attacks are mentioned, one led by Dörbetei, the other by Qoridai, and the double campaign struck fear into the Tibetans.[25] Tibetan sources however only mention an attack on a place called Bod kyi-mon-mkhar-mgpon-po-gdong. Wyle is sceptical however of all of these sources, arguing that the lack of substantive evidence for an invasion raises doubts about the extent of Mongol movements in Tibet proper.'[26] He concludes:-

"Excluding the 1252 attack against the unidentified Mon-mkmar-mgon-po-gdong mentioned earlier, there seems to be no evidence to prove the presence of Mongol troops in central Tibet during the two decades that 'Phags-pa Lama was away from Sa-skya (1244-65). During those years, external campaigns of conquest and internal feuds between scions of the sons of Chinggis Khan occupied the attention of the Mongols. Tibet, whose formidable terrain was politically fragmented by local lords and lamas, posed no military threat to the Mongols, and it was all but ignored by them."[27]

In 1252-53 Qoridai invaded Tibet, reaching as far as

William Rubruck reports that he saw Chinese, Tibetan, and Indian Buddhist monks at the capital city, Karakorum
, of the Mongol Empire.

Although, Karmapa of the

shamanist, but his chief khatun, Chabui (Chabi), converted to Buddhism and influenced Kublai's religious view. During Kublai's expedition into Yunnan, his number two, Uriyangkhadai, had to station in Tibet in 1254-55 possibly to suppress war-like tribes in Tibet. Hulegu appointed his representative, Kokochu, in Tibet in mid-1250s while marching towards Iran.[29]
Since then, the Ilkhans had had possessions in Tibet.

In 1265 Qongridar ravaged the Tufan/mDo-smad area, and from 1264 to 1275 several campaigns pacified the Tibetan and Yi peoples of Xifan around modern Xichang. By 1278 Mongol myriarchies: tumens and postroads reached through Dokham [zh; fr] (Tibetan: མདོ་ཁམས, Wylie: mdo khams, THL: dokham) as far west as Litang.

Aftermath

Main article: Tibet under Yuan rule
Tibet within the Yuan dynasty under the top-level department known as the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (Xuanzheng Yuan).

Tibet was subdued to the Mongol Empire under Mongolian administrative rule,[30] but the region was granted with a degree of political autonomy. Kublai Khan would later include Tibet into his Yuan dynasty, and the region remained administratively separate from the conquered provinces of Song dynasty China.

According to the Tibetan traditional view, the khan and the lama established "

Sakya lama a degree political authority, but retained control over the administration and military of the region.[32]
As efforts to rule both territories while preserving Mongol identity,
Neo-Confucian
policies.

Buddhist monks from Tibet were popular and well respected in Mongol-ruled Iran (the Ilkhanate),[29] Mongolia, China (the Yuan) and Central Asia (the Chagatai Khanate).[35] Towards the end of the Yuan dynasty in the mid-14th century, Tibet regained its independence from the Mongols.[citation needed]

Post imperial expedition

The Ligdan Khan and prince Choghtu's campaign
Date1634-1637
Location
Tibet
Result Victory of Oirat's Khoshut Khanate increased power of Gelug-Buddhism and fall Karma Kagyu and fall of the campaign prince Choghtu force.
Belligerents

by support

  • Chahar Mongolian Khanate force
  • Northern khalkha's Khanate force
Commanders and leaders
Güshi Khan
Strength
unknown 50 000
Casualties and losses
minimally heavy

The Oirats converted to Tibetan Buddhism around 1615, and it was not long before they became involved in the conflict between the Gelug and Karma Kagyu schools. At the request of the Gelug school, in 1637, Güshi Khan, the leader of the Khoshuts in Koko Nor, defeated Choghtu Khong Tayiji (1581-1637), the Khalkha prince who supported the Karma Kagyu school.

Tsogtu Khuntaiji had established a base on the

fifth Dalai Lama
and paid homage to Gelukpa monasteries instead of destroying them. Arslan was eventually assassinated by Choghtu's order.

The Geluk sect asked for help Törü Bayikhu (Güshi Khan), the leader of the

Dzungars
to Tibet. In the next year a decisive war between Tsogtu Khuntaiji and Törü Bayikhu ended in the latter's victory and Tsoghtu was killed.

He has traditionally been portrayed as evil by the Geluk sect. On the other hand, the Mongolian movie "Tsogt taij" (1945) treated him as a national hero. It reflected the communist regime's attitude toward Tibetan Buddhism.[clarification needed]

With his crushing victory over Tsogtu, Güshi Khan conquered

Fifth Dalai Lama. With these events the establishment of a Khoshut Khanate was confirmed. Gushi khan granted to the Dalai Lama authority over Tibet from Dartsedo to Ladakh. The title "Dalai Lama" itself had previously been bestowed upon the third lama of the Gelug tulku lineage by Altan Khan (not to be confused with the Altan Khans of the Khalkha
), and means, in Mongolian, "Ocean of Wisdom."

Resurfacing of the struggle between Dzungar Khanate and Qing dynasty

Mongol invasions of Tibet
Date1688-1755
Location
Tibet
Result Victory of the Qing empire.
Belligerents
Qing empire
Commanders and leaders

Intervention in Tibet

Main article: Dzungar–Qing Wars
The Dzungar and Kalmyk states (a fragment of the map of the Russian Empire of Peter the Great, created by a Swedish soldier in c. 1725).

Amdo, meanwhile, became home to the Khoshuts. The descendants of Güshi Khan continued to rule as Dharma kings (chogyals) of Tibet, although they were eclipsed by the Dalai Lama and his regent for long periods. In 1717, however, the

Bonpos were executed and Tibetans visiting Dzungar officials were forced to stick their tongues out so the Dzungars could tell if the person recited constant mantras (which was said to make the tongue black or brown). This allowed them to pick the Nyingmapa and Bonpos, who recited many magic-mantras.[36]
This habit of sticking one's tongue out as a mark of respect on greeting someone has remained a Tibetan custom until recent times.

The Dzungar invasion was a challenge to the imperial policy of the Kangxi Emperor, since Lha-bzang Khan had been allied to the Qing dynasty. The Emperor retaliated in 1718, but his military expedition suffered inadequate logistics and was annihilated by the Dzungars at the Battle of the Salween River not far from Lhasa.[37] A second and larger expedition was dispatched by the Emperor and met with rapid success. The Manchus expelled Tsewang Rabtan's force from Tibet in 1720 and the troops were hailed as liberators. They brought Kälzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and he was installed as the 7th Dalai Lama in 1721.[38] In 1723 Lobzang Danjin, another descendant of Güshi Khan, defended Amdo against Qing dynasty's attempts to extend its rule into Tibet, but was crushed in the following year. Thus, Amdo fell under Chinese domination.

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ Wylie. p.105
  2. ^ a b c d Wylie. p.106
  3. ^ Wylie. p.110, 'delegated the command of the Tibetan invasion to an otherwise unknown general, Doorda Darkhan'.
  4. ^ Shakabpa. p.61: 'thirty thousand troops, under the command of Leje and Dorta, reached Phanpo, north of Lhasa.'
  5. Godan Khan
    invaded Tibet with 30000 men and destroyed several Buddhist monasteries north of Lhasa
  6. ^ a b c Wylie. p.104
  7. ^ a b Wylie. p.103
  8. ^ Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China's 100 Questions, by Anne-Marie Blondeau and Katia Buffetrille, p13
  9. ^ Wylie. p.105: 'Why would Chinggis plan an invasion of Tibet as soon as he became Khan of the Mongols in 1206.'
  10. ^ Wylie. p.107, 'the statement that the 1240 expedition was a punitive raid for failure to pay tribute is without foundation.'
  11. ^ Wylie. p.106, '...erred in identifying Tibet as the country against Chinggis launched that early campaign. His military objective was the Tangut kingdom of Hsi-hsia.'
  12. ^ Wylie. p.106, 'the first instance of military conflict between the two nations'
  13. ^ C. P. Atwood Encyclopedia of Mongolia and Mongol Empire, p.538
  14. ^ Wylie. p.110.
  15. ^ Shakabpa. p.61: 'thirty thousand troops, under the command of Leje and Dorta, reached Phanpo, north of Lhasa.'
  16. ^ Sanders. p. 309, his grandson Godan Khan invaded Tibet with 30,000 men and destroyed several Buddhist monasteries north of Lhasa
  17. ^ Turrel J. Wylie The First Mongol Conquest of Tibet Reinterpreted, pp.110; Tucci, Giuseppe (1949) Tibetan Painted Scrolls, 2 Volumes, Rome: La Libreria dello Stato, Vol. II, p. 652.
  18. ^ C. P. Atwood Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.538
  19. ^ Petech, Luciano (1990) Central Tibet and the Mongols. Rome: IsIMEO, p. 8.
  20. ^ Wylie. p.112
  21. ^ a b Wylie. p.110
  22. ^ Kwanten, Luc, Imperial Nomads: A History of Central Asia, 500–1500 (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979) p.74.
  23. ^ Wylie. p.107
  24. ^ Wylie. p.111
  25. ^ Petech 2003 p.342.
  26. ^ Wylie, ibid.p.323: 'it is suggested here that references in Chinese sources pertain to campaigns in peripheral areas and that there was no Mongol invasion of central Tibet at that time.'
  27. ^ Wylie, ibid. p.326.
  28. ^ Wylie p.323-324.
  29. ^ a b "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2013-10-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  30. ^ Wylie. p.104: 'To counterbalance the political power of the lama, Khubilai appointed civil administrators at the Sa-skya to supervise the Mongol regency.'
  31. ^ Laird 2006, pp. 114-117
  32. ^ Dawa Norbu. China's Tibet Policy, pp. 139. Psychology Press.
  33. ^ Schirokauer, Conrad. A Brief History of Chinese Civilization. Thomson Wadsworth, (c)2006, p 174
  34. ^ Rossabi, M. Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times, p56
  35. ^ Dai Matsui - A Mongolian Decree from the Chaghataid Khanate
  36. ^ Norbu, Namkhai. (1980). "Bon and Bonpos". Tibetan Review, December, 1980, p. 8.
  37. ISBN 0-87773-376-7
    (pbk)
  38. ISBN 0-87773-376-7
    (pbk)

Sources

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