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Climate change mitigation consists of human actions to reduce

clean energy.^[2]

The use of

electric vehicles which are by far more energy efficient. Natural gas with carbon capture and storage

is debated as an option for industrial processes where fossil combustion cannot be avoided.

meat consumption.^[6] In addition, various natural processes and technologies can be used for carbon dioxide removal (CDR) from the atmosphere. These include afforestation, reforestation, carbon sequestration and direct air capture

.

Current policies are estimated to produce global warming of about 2.7 °C by 2100.[7] This is significantly above the goal of limiting global warming to well below 2 °C and preferably to 1.5 °C as per the Paris Agreement.^[8]^[9]

Overview

Definition

The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines climate change mitigation as "A human intervention to reduce emissions or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases".^[1]^: 2239

Goals

The overall goal of climate change mitigation is: "to preserve a biosphere which can sustain human civilization and the complex of ecosystem services which surround and support it. This means reducing anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions towards

net zero to limit the warming, with global goals agreed in the Paris Agreement."^[10]

^: 1–64

Co-benefits

There are also

co-benefits of climate change mitigation. For example, in the transport sector, possible co-benefits of mitigation strategies include: air quality improvements, health benefits,^[11] equitable access to transportation services, reduced traffic congestion, and reduced material demand.^[12]^: SPM-41 The increased use of green and blue infrastructure can reduce the urban heat island effect and heat stress on people, which will improve the mental and physical health of urban dwellers.^[13]^: TS-66 Climate change mitigation might also lead to less inequality and poverty.^[14]

Mitigation measures may have many health co-benefits – potential measures can not only mitigate future health impacts from climate change but also improve health directly.[15] Early deaths due to fossil fuel air pollution with a temperature rise to 2 °C cost more globally than mitigation would: and in India cost 4 to 5 times more.^[16] Air quality improvement is a near-term benefit among the many societal benefits from climate change mitigation, including substantial health benefits. Studies suggest that demand-side climate change mitigation solutions have largely beneficial effects on 18 constituents of well-being.^[17]^[18]

Risks and negative side effects

Impacts of mitigation measures can also have negative side effects. This is highly context-specific and can also depend on the scale of the intervention.^[13]^: TS-133 In agriculture and forestry, mitigation measures can affect biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.^[13]^: TS-87 In the area of renewable energies, mining for metals and minerals can increase threats to conservation areas.^[19] To address one of these issues, there is research into ways to recycle solar panels and electronic waste in order to create a source for materials that would otherwise need to be mined.^[20]^[21]

Discussions about risks and negative side effects of mitigation measures can "lead to deadlock or a sense that there are intractable obstacles to taking action".^[21]

Approaches

If CO₂ emissions would only stop growing this would not stabilize the GHG concentration in the atmosphere.^[22]

Stabilizing the atmospheric concentration of CO₂ at a constant level would require emissions to be effectively eliminated.^[22]

Climate change mitigation is all about reducing and recapturing greenhouse gas emissions. Greenhouse gases are primarily carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases.^[12]^{: Figure SPM.1}

The approaches that are being used fall into the following categories:

Clean energy: sustainable energy and sustainable transport
Energy conservation: efficient energy use and energy conservation
Agriculture and industry: sustainable agriculture and green industrial policy
Carbon sequestration: carbon dioxide removal and carbon sequestration

Although there is no single pathway to limit global warming to 1.5 or 2 °C,^[23] most scenarios and strategies see a major increase in the use of renewable energy in combination with increased energy efficiency measures to generate the needed greenhouse gas reductions.^[24] To reduce pressures on ecosystems and enhance their carbon sequestration capabilities, changes would also be necessary in agriculture and forestry,^[25] such as preventing deforestation and restoring natural ecosystems by reforestation.^[26] Scenarios that limit global warming to 1.5 °C typically project the large-scale use of carbon dioxide removal methods over the 21st century.^[27] There are concerns, though, about over-reliance on these technologies, and environmental impacts.^[28]

Timescales

Tools for mitigation vary in the timescales needed for them to have an impact on emissions.^[

ecosystem restoration, afforestation, and reforestation.^[12]^: 50 Elimination of certain other sources of emissions will require research, technology development, and conversion or replacement of facilities, and therefore will take much longer.^{[citation needed}

]

Greenhouse gas emissions

Main article: Greenhouse gas emissions

2020 Worldwide CO2 emissions (by region, per capita); variwide diagram

Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities strengthen the greenhouse effect, contributing to climate change. Most is carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels: coal, oil, and natural gas. Human-caused emissions have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than ever before.^[29]
Accounting of greenhouse gas emissions by sector can be done in different ways. An established method by Our World in Data groups them as follows (data for 2016): Energy (electricity, heat and transport): 73.2%, direct industrial processes: 5.2%, waste: 3.2%, agriculture, forestry and land use: 18.4%.^[3]
fossil-fuel industry. The largest agricultural methane source is livestock. Agricultural soils emit nitrous oxide partly due to fertilizers. Similarly, fluorinated gases from refrigerants play an outsized role in total human emissions.^{[citation needed}
]
Current emission rates are on average 6.5 tonnes per person per year (with large variations from one country to another).[30]

By type of greenhouse gas

Main article: Greenhouse gas emissions § Emissions by greenhouse gas

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is the dominant emitted greenhouse gas, while methane (CH₄) emissions almost have the same short-term impact.^[31] Nitrous oxide (N₂O) and fluorinated gases (F-Gases) play a minor role.
meat consumption.^[6]^[33]

GHG emissions are measured in
tropospheric ozone and black carbon persist in the atmosphere for a period ranging from days to 15 years; whereas carbon dioxide can remain in the atmosphere for millennia.^[34]

Needed emissions cuts

In order to limit global warming to less than 1.5 °C with a high likelihood of success, global greenhouse gas emissions needs to be
pledges under the Paris Agreement within the next decade to limit global warming to 2 °C. An even greater level of reduction is required to meet the 1.5 °C goal.^[37]

If emissions remain on the current level of 42 GtCO₂, the carbon budget for 1.5 °C could be exhausted in 2028.^[38]
In 2022, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released its Sixth Assessment Report on climate change, warning that greenhouse gas emissions must peak before 2025 at the latest and decline 43% by 2030, in order to likely limit global warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F).^[39]^[40] Secretary-general of the United Nations, António Guterres, clarified that for this "Main emitters must drastically cut emissions starting this year".^[41]
In 2019, the emissions gap report of the United Nations Environment Programme for limiting warming to 1.5 °C GHG said that emissions should be cut from the level of 2020 by 76% by 2030.^[42]
In 2018, the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C said that limiting warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) would require decreasing net CO₂ emissions by around 45% by 2030 from the level of 2010 and reach net zero by 2050. For limiting global warming to below 2 °C (3.6 °F), CO₂ emissions should decline by 25% by 2030 and by 100% by 2075. Non-CO₂ emissions need to be strongly reduced at similar levels in both scenarios.^[43]

Emissions and economic growth

Economic growth is a key driver of CO₂ emissions.^[44]^: 707 As the economy expands, demand for energy and energy-intensive goods increases, pushing up CO₂ emissions. On the other hand, economic growth may drive technological change and increase energy efficiency. Economic growth may be associated with specialization in certain economic sectors. If specialization is in energy-intensive sectors, specifically carbon energy sources, then there will be a strong link between economic growth and emissions growth. If specialization is in less energy-intensive sectors, e.g. the services sector, then there might be a weak link between economic growth and emissions growth.
Much of the literature focuses on the "environmental
GDP per capita move in the same direction. Beyond a certain income level, emissions per capita will decrease as GDP per capita increase, thus generating an inverted-U shaped relationship between GDP per capita and pollution. However, the econometrics literature did not support either an optimistic interpretation of the EKC hypothesis – i.e., that the problem of emissions growth will solve itself – or a pessimistic interpretation – i.e., that economic growth is irrevocably linked to emissions growth.^[44] Instead, it was suggested that there was some degree of flexibility between economic growth and emissions growth.^[45]

Energy systems

Main articles: Energy system, Energy transition, Low-carbon economy, and Fossil fuel phase-out
Coal, oil, and natural gas remain the primary global energy sources even as renewables have begun rapidly increasing.^[46]

The energy system, which includes the use and delivery of energy, is the main emitter of CO₂.^[47]^: 6–6 Reducing energy sector emissions is therefore essential to limit warming.^[47]^: 6–6 Rapid and deep reductions in the CO₂ and GHG emissions from energy system are needed to limit global warming to well below 2 °C.^[47]^: 6–3 Recommended measures includes: "reduced fossil fuel consumption, increased production from low- and zero carbon energy sources, and increased use of electricity and alternative energy carriers".^[47]^: 6–3

Wind and solar power are outcompeting coal, oil and gas in energy production

The competitiveness of renewable energy is a key to a rapid deployment. In 2020, onshore wind and solar photovoltaics were the cheapest source for new bulk electricity generation in many regions.^[48] Storage requirements cause additional costs. A carbon price can increase the competitiveness of renewable energy.

Low-carbon energy sources

Main article: Renewable energy

See also: Low-carbon economy, Renewable energy commercialization, and Renewable energy debate

Wind and sun can be sources for large amounts of low-carbon energy at competitive production costs. But even in combination, generation of
follow the energy demand
. Both can be driven by variable energy prices.
The deployment of renewable energy would have to be accelerated six-fold though to stay under the 2 °C target.^[49]

Solar energy

Main article: Solar energy

solar thermal power plant, located in Spain. The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy so that it can continue generating electricity for 7.5 hours after the sun has stopped shining.^[50]

Solar photovoltaics (PV) has become the cheapest way to produce electric energy in many regions of the world. The growth of photovoltaics is exponential and has doubled every three years since the 1990s. In the summer, PV power generation follows the daily demand curve.^[51] New trends are floating solar and agrivoltaics.

A different technology is concentrated solar power (CSP) using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight onto a receiver. With CSP, the energy can be stored for a few hours, providing supply in the evening. This can outweigh the higher costs compared to PV.

Solar water heating has doubled between 2010 and 2019.^[52] Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors combine PV and solar heating.

Wind power

Main article: Wind power

megawatt (MW) nameplate capacity, wind farm in the US state of Oregon
, each turbine is a nameplate 2 or 2.5 MW electricity generator.

Regions in the higher northern and southern latitudes have the highest potential for wind power.
wind farms
are more expensive but the units deliver more energy per installed capacity with less fluctuations. In most regions, wind power generation is higher in the winter when PV output is low. For this reason, combinations of wind and solar power are recommended.

Hydro power

Main article: Hydropower

People's Republic of China
, the largest hydroelectric power station in the world

Hydroelectricity plays a leading role in countries like Brazil, Norway and China.^[55] but there are geographical limits and environmental issues.^[56] Tidal power can be used in coastal regions.

Bioenergy

Main article: Biomass

Biogas plants can provide dispatchable electricity generation, and heat when needed.^[57] A common concept is the co-fermentation of energy crops mixed with manure in agriculture. Burning plant-derived biomass releases CO₂, but it has still been classified as a renewable energy source in the EU and UN legal frameworks because photosynthesis cycles the CO₂ back into new crops. How a fuel is produced, transported and processed has a significant impact on lifecycle emissions.^[58] Renewable biofuels are starting to be used in aviation.

Other low-carbon energy sources

Nuclear power

Main article: Nuclear power

A comparison of price changes for energy from nuclear fission and from other sources

In most 1.5 °C pathways of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C the share of nuclear power is increased.^[59] The main advantage of nuclear energy is the ability to deliver large amounts of base load when renewable energy is not available.^[60]
On the other hand, environmental and
Fukushima disaster is estimated to cost taxpayers ~$187 billion^[66] and radioactive waste management is estimated to cost the EU ~$250 billion by 2050.^[67]

The construction of new nuclear reactors currently takes about 10 years, substantially longer than scaling up the deployment of wind and solar. The largest drawback of nuclear energy is often considered to be the large construction and operating costs when compared to alternatives of sustainable energy sources whose costs are decreasing and which are the fastest-growing source of electricity generation.[68]^[69]^[70]^[71] Nuclear power avoided 2–3% of total global GHG emissions in 2021.
China
is building a significant number of new power plants, albeit significantly fewer reactors than originally planned. As of 2019^[update] the cost of extending nuclear power plant lifetimes is competitive with other electricity generation technologies, including new solar and wind projects.^[72] New projects are reported to be highly dependent on public subsidies.^[73]
ITER and other experimental projects, is underway but fusion energy is not likely to be commercially widespread before 2050.^[74]^[75]^[76]

Natural gas for fossil fuel switching

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable energy § Fossil fuel switching and mitigation.[edit]

Switching from
methane leaks is widely available but it is not always used.^[79]

Switching from coal to natural gas reduces emissions in the short term and thus contributes to climate change mitigation. However, in the long term it does not provide a path to
stranded assets, where new fossil infrastructure either commits to decades of carbon emissions, or has to be written off before it makes a profit.^[80]^[81]

Energy storage

Main article: Energy storage

See also: Hydrogen economy

Wind energy and photovoltaics can deliver large amounts of electric energy but not at any time and place. One approach is the conversation into storable forms of energy. This generally leads to losses in efficiency.
For storage requirements up to a few days, pumped hydro (PHES), compressed air (CAES) and Li-on batteries are most cost effective depending on charging rhythm. For 2040, a more significant role for Li-on and hydrogen is projected.^[82] Li-on batteries are widely used in battery storage power stations and are starting to be used in vehicle-to-grid storage.^[83] They provide a sufficient round-trip efficiency of 75–90 %.^[84] Their production can cause environmental problems.^[85] Levelized costs for battery storage have drastically fallen.^[48]
seasonal energy storage.^[86] The low efficiency of 30% of the reconversion to electricity must improve dramatically before hydrogen storage can offer the same overall energy efficiency as batteries.^[84] Thermal energy in the conversion process can be used for district heating. The concept of solar hydrogen is discussed for remote desert projects where grid connections to demand centers are not available.^[87] Because it has more energy per unit volume sometimes it may be better to use hydrogen in ammonia.^[88]

Energy grids

Main articles: Super grid, Load management, and Smart grid

Sketch of a possible super grid. The red squares represent the total surfaces needed for solar collectors of Concentrating Solar Thermal Power (CSP) plants to provide the present electricity demands.

Long-distance power lines help to minimize storage requirements. A continental transmission network can smoothen local variations of wind energy. With a global grid, even photovoltaics could be available all day and night. The strongest high-voltage direct current (HVDC) connections are quoted with losses of only 1.6% per 1000 km^[89] with a clear advantage compared to AC. HVDC is currently only used for point-to-point connections. Meshed HVDC grids may be used to connect offshore wind in future.^[90]
China has built many HVDC connections within the country and supports the idea of a global, intercontinental grid as a backbone system for the existing national AC grids.^[91] A super grid in the US in combination with renewable energy could reduce GHG emissions by 80%.^[92]
Instead of expanding grids and storage for more power, electricity demand can be adjusted on the consumer side. This can flatten demand peaks. Traditionally, the energy system has treated consumer demand as fixed. Instead, data systems can combine with advanced software to pro-actively manage demand and respond to energy market prices.^[93]
Time of use
tariffs are a common way to motivate electricity users to reduce their peak load consumption. On a household level, charging electric vehicles or running heat pumps combined with hot water storage when wind or sun energy are available reduces electricity costs.
Dynamic demand plans have devices passively shut off when stress is sensed on the electrical grid. This method may work very well with thermostats, when power on the grid sags a small amount, a low power temperature setting is automatically selected reducing the load on the grid. Refrigerators or heat pumps can reduce their consumption when clouds pass over solar installations. Consumers need to have a smart meter in order for the utility to calculate credits. Smart Scheduling of activities and processes can adjust demand to fluctuating supply.^[94]^[95]

Demand response devices can receive all sorts of messages from the grid. The message could be a request to use a low power mode similar to dynamic demand, to shut off entirely during a sudden failure on the grid, or notifications about the current and expected prices for power. This allows electric cars to recharge at the least expensive rates independent of the time of day. Vehicle-to-grid uses a car's battery to supply the grid temporarily.^[96]^[97] Smart grids could also monitor/control residential devices that are noncritical during periods of peak power consumption, and return their function during nonpeak hours.^[98]

Energy conservation and efficiency

Main articles: Efficient energy use and Energy conservation

In the European Investment Bank Climate Survey EU citizens said that in Europe, energy should be the most prioritised area of action against climate change.

Global primary energy demand exceeded 161,000 TWh in 2018.^[99] This refers to electricity, transport and heating including all losses. In transport and electricity production, fossil fuel usage has a low efficiency of less than 50%. Large amounts of heat in power plants and in motors of vehicles are wasted. The actual amount of energy consumed is significantly lower at 116,000 TWh.^[100]
A trial of estimated financial energy cost of
smaller ovens and non-use of drying machines), facilitating (less or) greener travel, installation of heat pumps, energy audits,^[104] and reducing room heating are also important.^[105] Energy efficiency of appliances as well as cooking techniques/choices have a substantial impact on GHGs from foods.^[106]^[107] In order for consumers to efficiently conserve energy, they – especially tenants – may need to have access to the (up to real-time) data of their electricity use and knowledge about efficient conservation options. Moreover, the most effective energy conservation options may not be in households but the industry or e.g. public venues.^{[citation needed}
]
The cogeneration of electric energy and
district heat also improves efficiency.^{[citation needed}
]
Head of the IEA declared the failure by governments and businesses to accelerate energy efficiency efforts as "inexplicable", with IEA analysis showing that greater efficiency could be achieved with existing technologies and measures.^[105]

Mitigation approaches by sector

Buildings

Main articles:
Energy-efficient buildings, Sustainable architecture, and Green building

The buildings sector accounts for 23% of global energy-related CO₂ emissions.[108] About half of the energy is used for space and water heating.^[109] Building insulation can reduce the primary energy demand significantly. Electrifying heating and cooling loads may also provide a flexible resource that can participate in demand response to integrate variable renewable resources into the grid. Solar water heating uses the thermal energy directly.
Heat pumps are an example of electrified heating. The International Energy Agency estimated that, as of 2021^[update], there were 190 million heat pumps installed in buildings worldwide.^[110] They are used in climates with moderate heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) needs and may also provide domestic hot water and tumble clothes drying functions.^[111]
Sufficiency measures include moving to smaller houses when the needs of households change, mixed use of spaces and the collective use of devices.
furnaces), double- or triple-glazed gas-filled windows
, external window shades, and building orientation and siting. In addition to designing buildings which are more energy-efficient to heat, it is possible to design buildings that are more energy-efficient to cool by using lighter-coloured, more reflective materials in the development of urban areas.

Cooling

See also: Passive cooling and Passive daytime radiative cooling

Refrigeration and air conditioning account for about 10% of global CO₂ emissions caused by fossil fuel-based energy production and the use of fluorinated gases. Alternative cooling systems, such as passive cooling building design and installing passive daytime radiative cooling surfaces, can reduce air conditioning use. Suburbs and cities in hot and arid climates can significantly reduce energy consumption from cooling with daytime radiative cooling.^[112]
The energy consumption for cooling is expected to rise significantly due to increasing heat and availability of devices in poorer countries. Of the 2.8 billion people living in the hottest parts of the world, only 8% currently have air conditioners, compared with 90% of people in the US and Japan.^[113] By combining energy efficiency improvements with the transition away from super-polluting refrigerants, the world could avoid cumulative greenhouse gas emissions of up to 210–460 GtCO₂e over the next four decades. ^[114] A shift to renewable energy in the cooling sector comes with two advantages: Solar energy production with mid-day peaks corresponds with the load required for cooling. Additionally, cooling has a large potential for load management in the electric grid.

Cities

Main article: Climate change and cities

Bicycles have almost no carbon footprint compared to cars.^[115]

Cities have big potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. They emitted 28 GtCO2-eq in 2020 of combined CO₂ and CH4 emissions.^[13]^: TS-61 This was "through the production and consumption of goods and services".^[13]^: TS-61 Climate-smart urban planning aims to reduce sprawl to reduce the distance travelled, thus lowering emissions from transportation. It supports mixed use of space, transit, walking, cycling, sharing vehicles can reduce urban emissions. Urban forestry, lakes and other blue and green infrastructure can reduce emissions directly and indirectly by reduced energy demand for cooling.^[13]^: TS-66 Personal cars are extremely inefficient at moving passengers, while public transport and bicycles are many times more efficient in an urban context. Switching from cars by improving walkability and cycling infrastructure is either free or beneficial to a country's economy as a whole.^[116]

Transport

Main articles:
Green transport

Transportation emissions account for 15% of emissions worldwide.[117] Increasing the use of public transport, low-carbon freight transport and cycling are important components of transport decarbonization.^[118]^[119]
air transport and truck transport.^[120]
Other efficiency means include improved public transport, smart mobility, carsharing and electric hybrids. Fossil-fuel powered passenger cars can be converted to electric propulsion. The production of alternative fuel without GHG emissions is only possible with high conversion losses. Furthermore, moving away from a car-dominated transport system towards low-carbon advanced public transport system is important.^[121]
Heavyweight, large personal vehicles (such as cars) require a lot of energy to move and take up much urban space.^[122]^[123] Several alternatives modes of transport are available to replace these. The European Union has made smart mobility part of its European Green Deal^[124] and in smart cities, smart mobility is also important.^[125]

Electric vehicles

See also: Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles and Alternative fuel vehicle

Battery electric bus in Montreal

Between a quarter and three-quarters of cars on the road by 2050 are forecast to be
megajoules per 100 km in comparison to 142 megajoules per 100 km for ICE cars.^[126]
Hydrogen can be a solution for long-distance transport by trucks and hydrogen-powered ships where batteries alone are too heavy.^[127]^[128]
GHG emissions depend on the amount of green energy being used for battery or fuel cell production and charging. In a system mainly based on electricity from fossil fuels, emissions of electric vehicles can even exceed those of diesel combustion.^[129]

Shipping

Further information: Environmental effects of shipping § Greenhouse gas pollutants

In the shipping industry, the use of liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a marine bunker fuel is driven by emissions regulations. Ship operators have to switch from heavy fuel oil to more expensive oil-based fuels, implement costly flue gas treatment technologies or switch to LNG engines.^[130] Methane slip, when gas leaks unburned through the engine, lowers the advantages of LNG. Maersk, the largest container shipping line and vessel operator in the world, warns of stranded assets when investing into transitional fuels like LNG.^[131] The company lists green ammonia as one of the preferred fuel types of the future and has announced the first carbon-neutral vessel on the water by 2023, running on carbon-neutral methanol.^[132]
Hybrid and all electric ferries are suitable for short distances. Norway's goal is an all electric fleet by 2025.^[133] The E-ferry Ellen, which was developed in an EU-backed project, is in operation in Denmark.

Air travel

Further information:
environmental impact of aviation

CO₂ emissions grew from 0.7% to 2.65% of all CO₂ emissions.^[134]

contrails and particulates. Their radiative forcing is estimated at 1.3–1.4 that of CO₂ alone, excluding induced cirrus cloud with a very low level of scientific understanding. In 2018, global commercial operations generated 2.4% of all CO₂ emissions.^[135]

Jet airliners have become 70% more fuel efficient between 1967 and 2007, and CO₂ emissions per revenue
fuel efficient, overall emissions have risen as the volume of air travel has increased. By 2020, aviation emissions were 70% higher than in 2005 and they could grow by 300% by 2050.^[136]

Aviation's environmental footprint can be reduced by better
carbon offsetting, part of the ICAO's CORSIA, can lower CO₂ emissions. Aviation usage can be lowered by short-haul flight bans, train connections, personal choices and aviation taxation and subsidies. Fuel-powered aircraft may be replaced by hybrid electric aircraft and electric aircraft or by hydrogen-powered aircraft
.
In aviation, current 180 Mt of CO₂ emissions (11% of emissions in transport) are expected to rise in most projections, at least until 2040.
carbon offsets
to cover their emissions above 2020 levels, starting from 2021. This is voluntary until 2027.

Agriculture

See also:
Environmental impact of meat production, and Sustainable agriculture

As 25% of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) are coming from agriculture and land use, it is impossible to limit temperature rise to 1.5 degrees without addressing the emissions from agriculture.
With 21% of the global methane emissions, cattle are a major driver on global warming.^[32] When rainforests are cut and the land is converted for grazing, the impact is even higher. This results in up to 335 kg CO_2eq emissions for the production of 1 kg beef in Brazil when using a 30-year time horizon.^[138] Other livestock, manure management and rice cultivation also produce relevant GHG emissions, in addition to fossil fuel combustion in agriculture.
Investment in improving and scaling up the production of dairy and meat alternatives leads to big greenhouse gas reductions compared with other investments.^[139] Also, photovoltaic-driven microbial protein production could use 10 times less land for an equivalent amount of protein compared to soybean cultivation.^[140]
Agricultural changes may require complementary laws and policies to drive and support dietary shifts, including changes in pet food,^[141] increases in organic food products,^[142]^[143]^[144] and substantial reductions of meat-intake (food miles usually do not play a large role).^[145]^[146]^[147]
Important mitigation options for reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from livestock include genetic selection,
meat analogues. Non-ruminant livestock (e.g. poultry) generates far fewer emissions.^[157]

In the United States, soils account for about half of agricultural GHGs while agriculture, forestry and other land use emits 24%.[158] The US
EPA says soil management practices that can reduce the emissions of nitrous oxide (N
₂O) from soils include fertilizer usage, irrigation, and tillage
.
Methane emissions in rice cultivation can be cut by implementing an improved water management, combining dry seeding and one drawdown, or a perfect execution of a sequence of wetting and drying. This results in emission reductions of up to 90% compared to full flooding and even increased yields.[159]

Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks

About 58% of CO₂ emissions have been absorbed by carbon sinks, including plant growth, soil uptake, and ocean uptake (2020 Global Carbon Budget).

World protected area map with total percentage of each country under protection, where countries in lighter colors have more protected land

Further information: Carbon sequestration and Land use, land-use change, and forestry

Terminology

Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is defined as "Anthropogenic activities removing carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential anthropogenic enhancement of biological or geochemical CO₂ sinks and direct air carbon dioxide capture and storage (DACCS), but excludes natural CO₂ uptake not directly caused by human activities."^[1]
The terminology in this area is still evolving. The term “geoengineering” (or
solar geoengineering), if the techniques are used at a global scale.^[10]^: 6–11 The terms geoengineering or climate engineering are no longer used in IPCC reports.^[1]

Land-based mitigation options are referred to as "AFOLU mitigation options" in the 2022 IPCC report on mitigation. The abbreviation stands for "agriculture, forestry and other land use"
peatlands, savannas and grasslands)". A high mitigation potential is found for reducing deforestation in tropical regions. The economic potential of these activities has been estimated to be 4.2 to 7.4 Giga tons of CO₂ equivalents per year.^[12]
^: 37

Forests

Further information: Carbon sequestration § Forestry

Conservation

Main articles: Deforestation § Control, and Desertification § Countermeasures

land rights
to indigenous inhabitants is argued to efficiently conserve forests.

About 95% of deforestation occurs in the tropics, where it is mostly driven by the clearing of land for agriculture.^[160]
Transferring rights over land from public domain to its indigenous inhabitants, who have had a stake for millennia in preserving the forests that they depend on, is argued to be a cost-effective strategy to conserve forests.^[161] This includes the protection of such rights entitled in existing laws, such as the Forest Rights Act in India, where concessions to land continue to go mostly to powerful companies.^[161] The transferring of such rights in China, perhaps the largest land reform in modern times, has been argued to have increased forest cover.^[162]^[163] Granting title of the land has shown to have two or three times less clearing than even state run parks, notably in the Brazilian Amazon. Even while the largest cause of deforestation in the world's second largest rainforest in the Congo is smallholder agriculture and charcoal production, areas with community concessions have significantly less deforestation as communities are incentivized to manage the land sustainably, even reducing poverty.^[164] Conservation methods that exclude humans, called "fortress conservation", and even evict inhabitants from protected areas often lead to more exploitation of the land as the native inhabitants then turn to work for extractive companies to survive.^[162]

Afforestation

United States

Efforts to reduce

Industrial Technologies Program.^[345]

In the absence of substantial federal action, state governments have adopted emissions-control laws such as the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative in the Northeast and the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 in California.^[346] In 2019 a new climate change bill was introduced in Minnesota. One of the targets, is making all the energy of the state carbon free, by 2030.^[347]

China

In 2020, China committed to peak emissions by 2030 and reach

net zero by 2060;^[348] following the 2021 blackouts, officials indicated the 2030 target was something "to strive to" and not necessarily to be met.^[349] In order to limit warming to 1.5 °C coal plants in China without carbon capture must be phased out by 2045.^[350] The Chinese national carbon trading scheme

started in 2021.

With more than 12 GtCO₂, China is the largest GHG emitter worldwide, still investing into new coal plants. On the other hand, China is also installing the largest capacities of renewable energy worldwide. In recent years, Chinese companies have flooded the world market with high-performance photovoltaic modules, resulting in competitive prices. China is also building a

HVDC

grid.

Chinas export-embodied emissions are estimated at a level of 1.7 GtCO₂ per year.[351]

European Union

The climate commitments of the European Union are divided into three main categories: targets for the year 2020, 2030 and 2050. The European Union claim that their policies are in line with the goal of the Paris Agreement.^[352]^[353]

Targets for 2020:^[354] Reduce GHG emissions by 20% from the level in 1990, produce 20% of energy from renewable sources, increase Energy Efficiency by 20%.
Targets for 2030:^[355] Reduce GHG emission by 40% from the level of 1990. In 2019 The European Parliament adopted a resolution upgrading the target to 55%,^[356] produce 32% of energy from renewables, increase energy efficiency by 32.5%.
Targets for 2050:^[352] become climate neutral.

The European Union claims that they have already achieved the 2020 target for emission reduction and have the legislation needed to achieve the 2030 targets. Already in 2018, its GHG emissions were 23% lower that in 1990.^[357]

Low and middle income countries

In order to reconcile

public private partnership

that operates within the CDM. However, none of these initiatives suggest a quantitative cap on the emissions from developing countries. This is considered as a particularly difficult policy proposal as the economic growth of developing countries are proportionally reflected in the growth of greenhouse emissions.

An important point of contention is how

Copenhagen Climate Conference was the Copenhagen Accord, in which developed countries promised to provide US$30 million between 2010 and 2012 of new and additional resources.^[359] Yet it remains unclear what exactly the definition of "additional" is.^[359]

In 2019 week of climate action in Latin America and the Caribbean result in a declaration in which leaders says that they will act to reduce emissions in the sectors of transportation, energy, urbanism, industry, forest conservation and land use and "sent a message of solidarity with all the people of Brazil suffering the consequences of the rainforest fires in the Amazon region, underscoring that protecting the world's forests is a collective responsibility, that forests are vital for life and that they are a critical part of the solution to climate change".^[360]^[361]

Monitoring

Satellites are increasingly being used for locating and measuring greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation. Earlier, scientists largely relied on or calculated estimates of greenhouse gas emissions and governments' self-reported data.^[362]^[363] They can also evaluate the environmental impact of policies and events such as the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment.^[364] Various other technologies are also being used for environmental monitoring.

While the status of most goals set for 2020 have not been evaluated in a definitive and detailed way or reported on by the media, the world failed to meet most or all international goals set for that year.^[365]^[366]

As the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference occurred in Glasgow, the group of researchers running the Climate Action Tracker reported that of countries responsible for 85% of GHG emissions, only four polities (responsible for 6% of global GHG emissions) – EU, UK, Chile and Costa Rica – have published a detailed official policy‑plan that describes the steps and ways by which 2030 mitigation targets could be realized.^[367] There are organizations that aim to transparently, neutrally and credibly monitor progress of climate change mitigation such as of pledges, goals, initiatives and other developments.^[368]^[369]

How well each individual country is on track to achieving its Paris agreement commitments can be followed on-line.^[370] The negative impact of COVID-19 pandemic has placed a challenge to achieve the Paris Agreement, with less significant support from the respondents from less developed countries.^[371]

Supplementary options

Solar radiation modification (SRM) is an approach that is sometimes grouped together with other climate change mitigation activities but is regarded as only a possible "supplementary activity".^[372]^: 14–56 This proposed technique is also called solar geoengineering and is part of climate engineering. Unlike other mitigation activities, SRM does not attempt to address the root cause of the problem but would work by changing the way solar radiation is received by Earth.^[372]

^: 14–56

Society and culture

Public perception

Results from 2021-2022 European Investment Bank Climate Survey showed that climate initiatives, according to 56% of Europeans, are an alternative source of economic growth. 56% of Europeans also believe that climate change mitigation will produce more employment. 61% of Europeans believe that climate change policies will improve their quality of life.

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v
t
e
Climate change
Overview

Causes of climate change

Climate change adaptation

Climate change mitigation

Effects of climate change

By country and region

Causes
Overview

Climate system

Greenhouse effect (Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere)

Scientific consensus on climate change

Sources

Deforestation

Fossil fuel

Greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gas emissions
Carbon accounting

Carbon footprint

Carbon leakage

from agriculture

from wetlands

World energy supply and consumption

History

History of climate change policy and politics

History of climate change science

Svante Arrhenius

James Hansen

Charles David Keeling

United Nations Climate Change conferences

Years in climate change
2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

Effects and issues
Physical

Abrupt climate change

Anoxic event

Arctic methane emissions

Arctic sea ice decline

Atlantic meridional overturning circulation

Drought

Extreme weather

Flood
Coastal flooding

Heat wave
Marine

Urban heat island

Oceans
acidification

deoxygenation

heat content

sea surface temperature

stratification

temperature

Ozone depletion

Permafrost thaw

Retreat of glaciers since 1850

Sea level rise

Season creep

Tipping points in the climate system

Tropical cyclones

Water cycle

Wildfires

Flora and fauna

Biomes
Mass mortality event

Birds

Extinction risk

Forest dieback

Invasive species

Marine life

Plant biodiversity

Social and economic

Agriculture
Livestock

United States

Children

Cities

Civilizational collapse

Disability

Economic impacts
U.S. insurance industry

Fisheries

Gender

Health
Mental health

Human rights

Indigenous peoples

Infectious diseases

Migration

Poverty

Psychological impacts

Security and conflict

Urban flooding

Water scarcity

Water security

By country and region

Africa

Americas

Antarctica

Arctic

Asia

Australia

Caribbean

Europe

Middle East and North Africa

Small island countries

by individual country

Mitigation
Economics and finance

Carbon budget

Carbon emission trading

Carbon offsets and credits
Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)

Carbon price

Carbon tax

Climate debt

Climate finance

Climate risk insurance

Co-benefits of climate change mitigation

Economics of climate change mitigation

Fossil fuel divestment

Green Climate Fund

Low-carbon economy

Net zero emissions

Energy

Carbon capture and storage

Energy transition
Fossil fuel phase-out

Nuclear power

Renewable energy

Sustainable energy

Preserving and enhancing
carbon sinks

Blue carbon

Carbon dioxide removal
Carbon sequestration

Direct air capture

Carbon farming

Climate-smart agriculture

Forest management
afforestation

forestry for carbon sequestration

REDD and REDD+

reforestation

Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF and AFOLU)

Nature-based solutions

Personal

Individual action on climate change
Plant-based diet

Society and adaptation
Society

Business action

Climate action

Climate emergency declaration

Climate movement
School Strike for Climate

Denial

Ecological grief

Governance

Justice

Litigation

Politics

Public opinion

Women

Adaptation

Adaptation strategies on the German coast

Adaptive capacity

Disaster risk reduction

Ecosystem-based adaptation

Flood control

Loss and damage

Managed retreat

Nature-based solutions

Resilience

Risk

Vulnerability

The Adaptation Fund

National Adaptation Programme of Action

Communication

Climate Change Performance Index

Climate crisis (term)

Climate spiral

Education

Media coverage

Popular culture depictions
art

fiction

video games

Warming stripes

International agreements

Glasgow Climate Pact

Kyoto Protocol

Paris Agreement
Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

Nationally determined contributions

Sustainable Development Goal 13

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Background and theory
Measurements

Global surface temperature

Instrumental temperature record

Proxy

Satellite temperature measurement

Theory

Albedo

Carbon cycle
atmospheric

biologic

oceanic

permafrost

Carbon sink

Climate sensitivity

Climate variability and change

Cloud feedback

Cloud forcing

Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis

Cryosphere

Earth's energy budget

Extreme event attribution

Feedbacks

Global warming potential

Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change

Orbital forcing

Radiative forcing

Research and modelling

Climate change scenario

Climate model

Coupled Model Intercomparison Project

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
IPCC Sixth Assessment Report

Paleoclimatology

Paleotempestology

Representative Concentration Pathway

Shared Socioeconomic Pathways

Solar radiation modification

Climate change portal

Category

Glossary

Index

Zambia
Zimbabwe

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@@ Line 160: / Line 160: @@
 [[Hydrogen]] may be useful for [[seasonal energy storage]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oilprice.com/Alternative-Energy/Fuel-Cells/Is-Green-Hydrogen-The-Future-Of-Energy-Storage.html|title=Is Green Hydrogen The Future Of Energy Storage?|website=OilPrice.com|language=en|access-date=7 April 2020}}</ref> The low efficiency of 30% of the reconversion to electricity must improve dramatically before hydrogen storage can offer the same overall energy efficiency as batteries.<ref name="Pellow" /> Thermal energy in the conversion process can be used for [[district heating]]. The concept of solar hydrogen is discussed for remote desert projects where grid connections to demand centers are not available.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.solarpowereurope.org/blog-solar-and-hydrogen/|title=Solar + Hydrogen: The perfect match for a Paris-compatible hydrogen strategy?|last1=Beauvais|first1=Aurélie|publisher=Solar Power Europe|date=13 November 2019|access-date=5 April 2020|archive-date=7 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707005736/https://www.solarpowereurope.org/blog-solar-and-hydrogen/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Because it has more energy per unit volume sometimes it may be better to use hydrogen in [[ammonia]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/2014e53c-531f-11ea-a1ef-da1721a0541e|title=Ammonia flagged as green shipping fuel of the future|date=30 March 2020|newspaper=[[Financial Times]]}}</ref>
-=== Super grids ===
+=== Energy grids ===
-{{Main|Super grid}}
+{{Main|Super grid|Load management|Smart grid}}
 [[File:DESERTEC-Map large.jpg|thumb|Sketch of a possible super grid. The red squares represent the total surfaces needed for solar collectors of Concentrating Solar Thermal Power (CSP) plants to provide the present electricity demands.]]
 Long-distance power lines help to minimize storage requirements. A continental transmission network can smoothen local variations of wind energy. With a global grid, even photovoltaics could be available all day and night. The strongest [[high-voltage direct current]] (HVDC) connections are quoted with losses of only 1.6% per 1000&nbsp;km<ref>{{cite web|title=UHV Grid|url=https://en.geidco.org.cn/aboutgei/uhv/|publisher=Global Energy Interconnection (GEIDCO)|access-date=26 January 2020|archive-date=1 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201182520/https://en.geidco.org/aboutgei/uhv/}}</ref> with a clear advantage compared to AC. HVDC is currently only used for point-to-point connections. Meshed HVDC grids may be used to connect offshore wind in future.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vella |first=Heidi |date=2022-07-28 |title=For Europe's offshore ambitions, grid innovation is key |url=https://www.raconteur.net/infrastructure/for-europes-offshore-ambitions-grid-innovation-is-key/ |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=Raconteur |language=en-GB}}</ref>
@@ Line 167: / Line 167: @@
 China has built many HVDC connections within the country and supports the idea of a global, intercontinental grid as a backbone system for the existing national [[alternating current|AC]] grids.<ref>{{cite web|title=GEIDCO development strategy|url=https://en.geidco.org.cn/aboutgei/strategy/|publisher=Global Energy Interconnection (GEIDCO)|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref> A super grid in the US in combination with renewable energy could reduce GHG emissions by 80%.<ref>{{cite web|title=North American Supergrid|url=http://climate.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/supergrid_9_2019.pdf|publisher=Climate Institute (USA)|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref>
-=== Smart grid and load management ===
-{{Main|Smart grid|Load management}}
 Instead of expanding grids and storage for more power, electricity demand can be adjusted on the consumer side. This can flatten demand peaks. Traditionally, the energy system has treated consumer demand as fixed. Instead, data systems can combine with advanced software to pro-actively manage demand and respond to energy market prices.<ref>{{cite web|title=Renewable Energy and Load Management|url=https://arena.gov.au/assets/2018/10/REALM-Industry-Report_public_FINAL.pdf|publisher=UTS University of Technology Sydney|access-date=28 March 2020}}</ref>

Revision as of 20:31, 23 November 2022

Overview

Definition

Goals

Co-benefits

Risks and negative side effects

Approaches

Timescales

Greenhouse gas emissions

By type of greenhouse gas

Needed emissions cuts

Emissions and economic growth

Energy systems

Low-carbon energy sources

Solar energy

Wind power

Hydro power

Bioenergy

Other low-carbon energy sources

Nuclear power

Natural gas for fossil fuel switching

Energy storage

Energy grids

Energy conservation and efficiency

Mitigation approaches by sector

Buildings

Cooling

Cities

Transport

Electric vehicles

Shipping

Air travel

Agriculture

Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks

Terminology

Forests

Conservation

Afforestation

Restoration

Soils

Farming methods

Wetlands

Peatlands

Coastal wetlands

Ocean-based options

Engineering based methods of removing carbon dioxide

Direct air capture

Carbon capture and storage

Demand management and social aspects

Lifestyle changes

Dietary change

Population growth

Personal carbon trading

Investment and finance

Investment

Funding

Economics

Companies, investors and politicians

Costs

Avoided costs of climate change effects

Cost sharing

Distributing emissions abatement costs

Specific proposals

Barriers

Carbon budgets by country

Geopoliticial impacts

Economic interests of fossil fuel companies

Regional differences

Government policies and action

International agreements

Paris Agreement

Additional commitments

Carbon pricing

Abolishing fossil fuel subsidies

Policies by country

United States

China

European Union

Low and middle income countries

Monitoring