Cryosphere

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For the scientific journal, see The Cryosphere.
Overview of the cryosphere and its larger components[1]

The cryosphere (from the

oceanic circulation
.

Through these feedback processes, the cryosphere plays a significant role in the

permafrost thaw
and snow cover decrease.

Overall interactions

ice sheets, and frozen ground and permafrost (permanently frozen ground). The residence time of water in each of these cryospheric sub-systems varies widely. Snow cover and freshwater ice are essentially seasonal, and most sea ice, except for ice in the central Arctic, lasts only a few years if it is not seasonal. A given water particle in glaciers, ice sheets, or ground ice, however, may remain frozen for 10–100,000 years or longer, and deep ice in parts of East Antarctica may have an age approaching 1 million years.[citation needed
]

Most of the world's ice volume is in Antarctica, principally in the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. In terms of areal extent, however, Northern Hemisphere winter snow and ice extent comprise the largest area, amounting to an average 23% of hemispheric surface area in January. The large areal extent and the important climatic roles of snow and ice is related to their unique physical properties. This also indicates that the ability to observe and model snow and ice-cover extent, thickness, and physical properties (radiative and thermal properties) is of particular significance for climate research.[citation needed]

There are several fundamental physical properties of snow and ice that modulate energy exchanges between the surface and the atmosphere. The most important properties are the surface reflectance (albedo), the ability to transfer heat (thermal diffusivity), and the ability to change state (latent heat). These physical properties, together with surface roughness, emissivity, and dielectric characteristics, have important implications for observing snow and ice from space. For example, surface roughness is often the dominant factor determining the strength of radar backscatter.[5] Physical properties such as crystal structure, density, length, and liquid water content are important factors affecting the transfers of heat and water and the scattering of microwave energy.

The surface reflectance of incoming

solar radiation was greatest over snow-covered areas.[6]

The

hydrological cycle. In non-permafrost regions, the insulating effect of snow is such that only near-surface ground freezes and deep-water drainage is uninterrupted.[7]

While snow and ice act to insulate the surface from large energy losses in winter, they also act to retard warming in the spring and summer because of the large amount of energy required to melt ice (the latent heat of fusion, 3.34 x 105 J/kg at 0 °C). However, the strong static stability of the atmosphere over areas of extensive snow or ice tends to confine the immediate cooling effect to a relatively shallow layer, so that associated atmospheric anomalies are usually short-lived and local to regional in scale.[8] In some areas of the world such as Eurasia, however, the cooling associated with a heavy snowpack and moist spring soils is known to play a role in modulating the summer monsoon circulation.[9]

Climate change feedback mechanisms

Main article:
Climate change feedback

There are numerous cryosphere-climate feedbacks in the

global climate system. These operate over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales from local seasonal cooling of air temperatures to hemispheric-scale variations in ice sheets over time scales of thousands of years. The feedback mechanisms involved are often complex and incompletely understood. For example, Curry et al. (1995) showed that the so-called "simple" sea ice-albedo feedback involved complex interactions with lead fraction, melt ponds, ice thickness, snow cover, and sea-ice extent.[citation needed
]

The role of snow cover in modulating the monsoon is just one example of a short-term cryosphere-climate feedback involving the land surface and the atmosphere.[9][citation needed]

Components

Glaciers and ice sheets

Main articles: Glacier and Ice sheet
Representation of glaciers on a topographic map
The Taschachferner glacier in the Ötztal Alps in Austria. The mountain to the left is the Wildspitze (3.768 m), second highest in Austria. To the right is an area with open crevasses where the glacier flows over a kind of large cliff.[10]

glacial flow") within the ice body and sliding on the underlying land, which leads to thinning and horizontal spreading.[11] Any imbalance of this dynamic equilibrium between mass gain, loss and transport due to flow results in either growing or shrinking ice bodies.

Aerial view of the ice sheet on Greenland's east coast

Relationships between global climate and changes in ice extent are complex. The mass balance of land-based glaciers and ice sheets is determined by the accumulation of snow, mostly in winter, and warm-season ablation due primarily to net radiation and turbulent heat fluxes to melting ice and snow from warm-air advection[12][13] Where ice masses terminate in the ocean, iceberg calving is the major contributor to mass loss. In this situation, the ice margin may extend out into deep water as a floating ice shelf, such as that in the Ross Sea

.

This section is an excerpt from Glacier.[edit]

A glacier (US: /ˈɡleɪʃər/; UK: /ˈɡlæsiər, ˈɡleɪsiər/) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. It acquires distinguishing features, such as crevasses and seracs, as it slowly flows and deforms under stresses induced by its weight. As it moves, it abrades rock and debris from its substrate to create landforms such as cirques, moraines, or fjords. Although a glacier may flow into a body of water, it forms only on land and is distinct from the much thinner sea ice and lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water.

On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast

oceanic island countries such as New Zealand. Between latitudes 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the Himalayas, Andes, and a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, New Guinea and on Zard-Kuh in Iran.[14] With more than 7,000 known glaciers, Pakistan has more glacial ice than any other country outside the polar regions.[15][16] Glaciers cover about 10% of Earth's land surface. Continental glaciers cover nearly 13 million km2 (5 million sq mi) or about 98% of Antarctica's 13.2 million km2 (5.1 million sq mi), with an average thickness of ice 2,100 m (7,000 ft). Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers.[17] The volume of glaciers, not including the ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland, has been estimated at 170,000 km3.[18]

Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth, holding with ice sheets about 69 percent of the world's freshwater.[19][20] Many glaciers from temperate, alpine and seasonal polar climates store water as ice during the colder seasons and release it later in the form of meltwater as warmer summer temperatures cause the glacier to melt, creating a water source that is especially important for plants, animals and human uses when other sources may be scant. However, within high-altitude and Antarctic environments, the seasonal temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater.
This section is an excerpt from Ice sheet.[edit]

In glaciology, an ice sheet, also known as a continental glacier,[21] is a mass of glacial ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50,000 km2 (19,000 sq mi).[22] The only current ice sheets are the Antarctic ice sheet and the Greenland ice sheet. Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers. Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap. An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery.

Although the surface is cold, the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat. In places, melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly. This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet — these are ice streams.

In previous geologic time spans (
Weichselian ice sheet covered Northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America
.

Sea ice

Main article: Sea ice
Broken pieces of Arctic sea ice with a snow cover
Satellite image of sea ice forming near St. Matthew Island in the Bering Sea

Sea ice covers much of the polar oceans and forms by freezing of sea water. Satellite data since the early 1970s reveal considerable seasonal, regional, and interannual variability in the sea ice covers of both hemispheres. Seasonally, sea-ice extent in the Southern Hemisphere varies by a factor of 5, from a minimum of 3–4 million km2 in February to a maximum of 17–20 million km2 in September.[23][24] The seasonal variation is much less in the Northern Hemisphere where the confined nature and high latitudes of the Arctic Ocean result in a much larger perennial ice cover, and the surrounding land limits the equatorward extent of wintertime ice. Thus, the seasonal variability in Northern Hemisphere ice extent varies by only a factor of 2, from a minimum of 7–9 million km2 in September to a maximum of 14–16 million km2 in March.[24][25]

The ice cover exhibits much greater regional-scale interannual variability than it does hemispherical. For instance, in the region of the Sea of Okhotsk and Japan, maximum ice extent decreased from 1.3 million km2 in 1983 to 0.85 million km2 in 1984, a decrease of 35%, before rebounding the following year to 1.2 million km2.[24] The regional fluctuations in both hemispheres are such that for any several-year period of the satellite record some regions exhibit decreasing ice coverage while others exhibit increasing ice cover.[26]

Frozen ground and permafrost

This section is an excerpt from Permafrost.[edit]
Extent and types of permafrost in the Northern Hemisphere

Permafrost (from perma- 'permanent', and frost) is soil or underwater sediment which continuously remains below 0 °C (32 °F) for two years or more: the oldest permafrost had been continuously frozen for around 700,000 years.[27] While the shallowest permafrost has a vertical extent of below a meter (3 ft), the deepest is greater than 1,500 m (4,900 ft).[28] Similarly, the area of individual permafrost zones may be limited to narrow mountain summits or extend across vast Arctic regions.[29] The ground beneath glaciers and ice sheets is not usually defined as permafrost, so on land, permafrost is generally located beneath a so-called active layer of soil which freezes and thaws depending on the season.[30]

Around 15% of the Northern Hemisphere or 11% of the global surface is underlain by permafrost,[31] with the total area of around 18 million km2 (6.9 million sq mi).[32] This includes large areas of Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and Siberia. It is also located in high mountain regions, with the Tibetan Plateau a prominent example. Only a minority of permafrost exists in the Southern Hemisphere, where it is consigned to mountain slopes like in the Andes of Patagonia, the Southern Alps of New Zealand, or the highest mountains of Antarctica.[29][27]

Permafrost contains large amounts of dead
climate change feedback.[33][34][35] The emissions from thawing permafrost will have a sufficient impact on the climate to impact global carbon budgets. It is difficult to accurately predict how much greenhouse gases the permafrost releases because of the different thaw processes are still uncertain. There is widespread agreement that the emissions will be smaller than human-caused emissions and not large enough to result in runaway warming.[36] Instead, the annual permafrost emissions are likely comparable with global emissions from deforestation, or to annual emissions of large countries such as Russia, the United States or China.[37]

Snow cover

Main article: Snow
Snow-covered trees in Kuusamo, Finland
Snow drifts forming around downwind obstructions

Most of the Earth's snow-covered area is located in the Northern Hemisphere, and varies seasonally from 46.5 million km2 in January to 3.8 million km2 in August.[38]

Snow cover is an extremely important storage component in the water balance, especially seasonal snowpacks in mountainous areas of the world. Though limited in extent, seasonal snowpacks in the Earth’s mountain ranges account for the major source of the runoff for stream flow and groundwater recharge over wide areas of the midlatitudes. For example, over 85% of the annual runoff from the Colorado River basin originates as snowmelt. Snowmelt runoff from the Earth's mountains fills the rivers and recharges the aquifers that over a billion people depend on for their water resources.[citation needed]

Furthermore, over 40% of the world's protected areas are in mountains, attesting to their value both as unique ecosystems needing protection and as recreation areas for humans.[citation needed]

Lake ice and river ice

See also: Ice § On lakes

Ice forms on rivers and lakes in response to seasonal cooling. The sizes of the ice bodies involved are too small to exert anything other than localized climatic effects. However, the freeze-up/break-up processes respond to large-scale and local weather factors, such that considerable interannual variability exists in the dates of appearance and disappearance of the ice. Long series of lake-ice observations can serve as a proxy climate record, and the monitoring of freeze-up and break-up trends may provide a convenient integrated and seasonally-specific index of climatic perturbations. Information on river-ice conditions is less useful as a climatic proxy because ice formation is strongly dependent on river-flow regime, which is affected by precipitation, snow melt, and watershed runoff as well as being subject to human interference that directly modifies channel flow, or that indirectly affects the runoff via land-use practices.[citation needed]

Lake freeze-up depends on the heat storage in the lake and therefore on its depth, the rate and temperature of any

radar imagery during late winter (Sellman et al. 1975) and spaceborne optical imagery during summer (Duguay and Lafleur 1997). The timing of breakup is modified by snow depth on the ice as well as by ice thickness and freshwater inflow.[citation needed
]

Declines caused by climate change

This section is an excerpt from Effects of climate change § Ice and snow.[edit]
Earth lost 28 trillion tonnes of ice between 1994 and 2017, with melting grounded ice (ice sheets and glaciers) raising the global sea level by 34.6 ±3.1 mm.[39] The rate of ice loss has risen by 57% since the 1990s−from 0.8 to 1.2 trillion tonnes per year.[39]
Melting of glacial mass is approximately linearly related to temperature rise.[40]
Shrinkage of snow cover duration in the Alps, starting ca. end of the 19th century, highlighting climate change adaptation needs[41]
The cryosphere, the area of the Earth covered by snow or ice, is extremely sensitive to changes in global climate.
snow cover is projected to continue its retreat in almost all regions.[44]
: 39–69 

Ice sheet melt

2023 projections of how much the Greenland ice sheet may shrink from its present extent by the year 2300 under the worst possible climate change scenario (upper half) and of how much faster its remaining ice will be flowing in that case (lower half)[45]
parts per million. Second and third states would result in 1.8 m (6 ft) and 2.4 m (8 ft) of sea level rise, while the fourth state is equivalent to 6.9 m (23 ft).[46][47]
This section is an excerpt from Greenland ice sheet.[edit]

The Greenland ice sheet is an ice sheet which forms the second largest body of ice in the world. It is an average of 1.67 km (1.0 mi) thick, and over 3 km (1.9 mi) thick at its maximum.[48] It is almost 2,900 kilometres (1,800 mi) long in a north–south direction, with a maximum width of 1,100 kilometres (680 mi) at a latitude of 77°N, near its northern edge.[49] The ice sheet covers 1,710,000 square kilometres (660,000 sq mi), around 80% of the surface of Greenland, or about 12% of the area of the Antarctic ice sheet.[48] The term 'Greenland ice sheet' is often shortened to GIS or GrIS in scientific literature.[50][51][52][53]

A narrated tour about Greenland's ice sheet.
If all 2,900,000 cubic kilometres (696,000 cu mi) of the ice sheet were to melt, it would increase global sea levels by ~7.4 m (24 ft).[48] Global warming between 1.7 °C (3.1 °F) and 2.3 °C (4.1 °F) would likely make this melting inevitable.[53] However, 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) would still cause ice loss equivalent to 1.4 m (4+1⁄2 ft) of sea level rise,[54] and more ice will be lost if the temperatures exceed that level before declining.[53] If global temperatures continue to rise, the ice sheet will likely disappear within 10,000 years.[55][56] At very high warming, its future lifetime goes down to around 1,000 years.[57]
This section is an excerpt from Climate change in Antarctica.[edit]
The West Antarctic ice sheet is likely to melt completely,
Aurora Basin may collapse over a period of around 2,000 years,[62][63] potentially adding up to 6.4 m (21 ft 0 in) to sea levels.[64] The complete melting and disappearance of the East Antarctic ice sheet would require at least 10,000 years, and it would only occur if global warming reaches 5 °C (9.0 °F) to 10 °C (18 °F).[62][63]


Glaciers decline

This section is an excerpt from Retreat of glaciers since 1850.[edit]
Example of a glacier retreat: White Chuck Glacier, Washington
Glacier in Glacier Peak Wilderness, 1973
White Chuck Glacier in the United States in 1973
White Chuck Glacier in 2006; the glacier has retreated 1.9 kilometres (1.2 mi).
Same vantage point in 2006. The glacier retreated 1.9 kilometres (1.2 mi) in 33 years.

The

outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level, which would affect coastal regions. Excluding peripheral glaciers of ice sheets, the total cumulated global glacial losses over the 26-year period from 1993 to 2018 were likely 5500 gigatons, or 210 gigatons per yr.[67]
: 1275 

glaciologists find the current glacier retreat is accelerated by the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases and is thus effect of climate change. Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier. If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone
a glacier will advance; if the accumulation is less than the ablation, the glacier will retreat. Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances, and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation, will eventually disappear.

Sea ice decline

This section is an excerpt from Effects of climate change § Sea ice decline.[edit]
Reporting the reduction in Antarctic sea ice extent in mid 2023, researchers concluded that a "regime shift" may be taking place "in which previously important relationships no longer dominate sea ice variability".[68]

ice-albedo feedback is a self-reinforcing feedback of climate change.[70] Large-scale measurements of sea ice have only been possible since satellites came into use.[71]

Sea ice in the Arctic has declined in recent decades in area and volume due to climate change. It has been melting more in summer than it refreezes in winter. The decline of sea ice in the Arctic has been accelerating during the early twenty-first century. It has a rate of decline of 4.7% per decade. It has declined over 50% since the first satellite records.[72][73][74] Ice-free summers are expected to be rare at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) degrees of warming. They are set to occur at least once every decade with a warming level of 2 °C (3.6 °F).[75]: 8  The Arctic will likely become ice-free at the end of some summers before 2050.[76]: 9 

Sea ice extent in Antarctica varies a lot year by year. This makes it difficult to determine a trend, and record highs and record lows have been observed between 2013 and 2023. The general trend since 1979, the start of the
satellite measurements, has been roughly flat. Between 2015 and 2023, there has been a decline in sea ice, but due to the high variability, this does not correspond to a significant trend.[77]

Permafrost thaw

This section is an excerpt from Permafrost § Impacts of climate change.[edit]
Recently thawed Arctic permafrost and coastal erosion on the Beaufort Sea, Arctic Ocean, near Point Lonely, Alaska in 2013.

Globally, permafrost warmed by about 0.3 °C (0.54 °F) between 2007 and 2016, with stronger warming observed in the continuous permafrost zone relative to the discontinuous zone. Observed warming was up to 3 °C (5.4 °F) in parts of

Russian Arctic across the 21st century and at high elevation areas in Europe and Asia since the 1990s.[78]: 1237  Between 2000 and 2018, the average active layer thickness had increased from ~127 centimetres (4.17 ft) to ~145 centimetres (4.76 ft), at an average annual rate of ~0.65 centimetres (0.26 in).[79] In Yukon, the zone of continuous permafrost might have moved 100 kilometres (62 mi) poleward since 1899, but accurate records only go back 30 years. The extent of subsea permafrost is decreasing as well; as of 2019, ~97% of permafrost under Arctic ice shelves is becoming warmer and thinner.[80][36]: 1281  Based on high agreement across model projections, fundamental process understanding, and paleoclimate evidence, it is virtually certain that permafrost extent and volume will continue to shrink as the global climate warms, with the extent of the losses determined by the magnitude of warming.[78]
: 1283 

Permafrost thaw is associated with a wide range of issues, and International Permafrost Association (IPA) exists to help address them. It convenes International Permafrost Conferences and maintains Global Terrestrial Network for Permafrost, which undertakes special projects such as preparing databases, maps, bibliographies, and glossaries, and coordinates international field programmes and networks.[81]

Snow cover decrease

Studies in 2021 found that Northern Hemisphere snow cover has been decreasing since 1978, along with snow depth.[82] Paleoclimate observations show that such changes are unprecedented over the last millennia in Western North America.[83][84][82]

North American winter snow cover increased during the 20th century,[85][86] largely in response to an increase in precipitation.[87]

Because of its close relationship with hemispheric air temperature, snow cover is an important indicator of climate change.[citation needed]

Global warming is expected to result in major changes to the partitioning of snow and rainfall, and to the timing of snowmelt, which will have important implications for water use and management.[citation needed] These changes also involve potentially important decadal and longer time-scale feedbacks to the climate system through temporal and spatial changes in soil moisture and runoff to the oceans.(Walsh 1995). Freshwater fluxes from the snow cover into the marine environment may be important, as the total flux is probably of the same magnitude as desalinated ridging and rubble areas of sea ice.[88] In addition, there is an associated pulse of precipitated pollutants which accumulate over the Arctic winter in snowfall and are released into the ocean upon ablation of the sea ice.[citation needed]

Related scientific disciplines

"Cryospheric sciences" is an

umbrella term for the study of the cryosphere. As an interdisciplinary Earth science, many disciplines contribute to it, most notably geology, hydrology, and meteorology and climatology; in this sense, it is comparable to glaciology
.

The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features.

See also

References

  1. ^ "Cryosphere - Maps and Graphics at UNEP/GRID-Arendal". 2007-08-26. Archived from the original on 2007-08-26. Retrieved 2023-09-25.
  2. ^ σφαῖρα Archived 2017-05-10 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
  3. ^ "Global Ice Viewer – Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet". climate.nasa.gov. Retrieved 27 November 2021.
  4. ^ Planton, S. (2013). "Annex III: Glossary" (PDF). In Stocker, T.F.; Qin, D.; Plattner, G.-K.; Tignor, M.; Allen, S.K.; Boschung, J.; Nauels, A.; Xia, Y.; Bex, V.; Midgley, P.M. (eds.). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
  5. ISBN 978-94-009-4842-6
    .
  6. S2CID 9932394
    . Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  7. ^ Lynch-Stieglitz, M., 1994: The development and validation of a simple snow model for the GISS GCM. J. Climate, 7, 1842–1855.
  8. ^ Cohen, J., and D. Rind, 1991: The effect of snow cover on the climate. J. Climate, 4, 689–706.
  9. ^ a b Vernekar, A. D., J. Zhou, and J. Shukla, 1995: The effect of Eurasian snow cover on the Indian monsoon. J. Climate, 8, 248–266.
  10. ^ Google Maps: Distance between Wildspitze and Hinterer Brochkogel, cf. image scale at lower edge of screen
  11. ISBN 978-3-642-03414-5
    .
  12. ^ Paterson, W. S. B., 1993: World sea level and the present mass balance of the Antarctic ice sheet. In: W.R. Peltier (ed.), Ice in the Climate System, NATO ASI Series, I12, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 131–140.
  13. ^ Van den Broeke, M. R., 1996: The atmospheric boundary layer over ice sheets and glaciers. Utrecht, Universitiet Utrecht, 178 pp.
  14. ISBN 978-0-295-97910-6
    .
  15. ^ Staff (June 9, 2020). "Millions at risk as melting Pakistan glaciers raise flood fears". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2020-06-09.
  16. ISSN 0190-8286
    . Retrieved 2020-09-04. With 7,253 known glaciers, including 543 in the Chitral Valley, there is more glacial ice in Pakistan than anywhere on Earth outside the polar regions, according to various studies.
  17. ISBN 0-7922-3877-X
    , p. 149.
  18. ^ "170'000 km cube d'eau dans les glaciers du monde". ArcInfo. Aug 6, 2015. Archived from the original on August 17, 2017.
  19. ^ "Ice, Snow, and Glaciers and the Water Cycle". www.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2021-05-25.
  20. S2CID 129545865.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  21. ^ American Meteorological Society, Glossary of Meteorology Archived 2012-06-23 at the Wayback Machine
  22. ^ "Glossary of Important Terms in Glacial Geology". Archived from the original on 2006-08-29. Retrieved 2006-08-22.
  23. ^ Zwally, H. J., J. C. Comiso, C. L. Parkinson, W. J. Campbell, F. D. Carsey, and P. Gloersen, 1983: Antarctic Sea Ice, 1973–1976: Satellite Passive-Microwave Observations. NASA SP-459, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C., 206 pp.
  24. ^ a b c Gloersen, P., W. J. Campbell, D. J. Cavalieri, J. C. Comiso, C. L. Parkinson, and H. J. Zwally, 1992: Arctic and Antarctic Sea Ice, 1978–1987: Satellite Passive-Microwave Observations and Analysis. NASA SP-511, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C., 290 pp.
  25. ^ Parkinson, C. L., J. C. Comiso, H. J. Zwally, D. J. Cavalieri, P. Gloersen, and W. J. Campbell, 1987: Arctic Sea Ice, 1973–1976: Satellite Passive-Microwave Observations, NASA SP-489, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C., 296 pp.
  26. ^ Parkinson, C. L., 1995: Recent sea-ice advances in Baffin Bay/Davis Strait and retreats in the Bellinshausen Sea. Annals of Glaciology, 21, 348–352.
  27. ^ a b McGee, David; Gribkoff, Elizabeth (4 August 2022). "Permafrost". MIT Climate Portal. Retrieved 27 September 2023.
  28. ^ "What is Permafrost?". International Permafrost Association. Retrieved 27 September 2023.
  29. ^ a b c Denchak, Melissa (26 June 2018). "Permafrost: Everything You Need to Know". Natural Resources Defense Council. Retrieved 27 September 2023.
  30. S2CID 255639677
    .
  31. doi:10.1029/2021JF006123
    .
  32. S2CID 234515282
    .
  33. NOAA
    .
  34. PMID 21852573
    .
  35. S2CID 257700504
    .
  36. ^ a b Fox-Kemper, B., H.T. Hewitt, C. Xiao, G. Aðalgeirsdóttir, S.S. Drijfhout, T.L. Edwards, N.R. Golledge, M. Hemer, R.E. Kopp, G. Krinner, A. Mix, D. Notz, S. Nowicki, I.S. Nurhati, L. Ruiz, J.-B. Sallée, A.B.A. Slangen, and Y. Yu, 2021: Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1211–1362.
  37. S2CID 252986002
    .
  38. ^ Robinson, D. A., K. F. Dewey, and R. R. Heim, 1993: Global snow cover monitoring: an update. Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc., 74, 1689–1696.
  39. ^
    hdl:20.500.11820/df343a4d-6b66-4eae-ac3f-f5a35bdeef04
    . Fig. 4.
  40. S2CID 255441012
    .
  41. ISSN 1758-6798
    .
  42. ^ Getting to Know the Cryosphere Archived 15 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Earth Labs
  43. S2CID 201675060
    .
  44. doi:10.1017/9781009157964.002
  45. doi:10.5194/tc-17-3083-2023
    .
  46. S2CID 257774870
    .
  47. PMID 37853149
    .
  48. ^ a b c "How Greenland would look without its ice sheet". BBC News. 14 December 2017. Archived from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
  49. ^ Greenland Ice Sheet. 24 October 2023. Archived from the original on 30 October 2017. Retrieved 26 May 2022.
  50. PMID 30420596
    .
  51. S2CID 233632072
    .
  52. S2CID 257774870
    .
  53. ^
    PMID 37853149
    .
  54. S2CID 259985096
    .
  55. S2CID 252161375. Archived
    from the original on 14 November 2022. Retrieved 22 October 2022.
  56. ^ Armstrong McKay, David (9 September 2022). "Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer". climatetippingpoints.info. Archived from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
  57. PMID 31223652
    .
  58. ^ Carlson, Anders E; Walczak, Maureen H; Beard, Brian L; Laffin, Matthew K; Stoner, Joseph S; Hatfield, Robert G (10 December 2018). Absence of the West Antarctic ice sheet during the last interglaciation. American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting.
  59. S2CID 266436146
    .
  60. S2CID 264476246
    .
  61. S2CID 221885420
    .
  62. ^
    S2CID 252161375
    .
  63. ^ a b c Armstrong McKay, David (9 September 2022). "Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer". climatetippingpoints.info. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
  64. ^
    PMID 33931453
    .
  65. S2CID 13129041. Archived
    (PDF) from the original on 16 February 2020. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
  66. PMID 36088458
    .
  67. ^ Fox-Kemper, B., H.T. Hewitt, C. Xiao, G. Aðalgeirsdóttir, S.S. Drijfhout, T.L. Edwards, N.R. Golledge, M. Hemer, R.E. Kopp, G.  Krinner, A. Mix, D. Notz, S. Nowicki, I.S. Nurhati, L. Ruiz, J.-B. Sallée, A.B.A. Slangen, and Y. Yu, 2021: Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L.  Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.011.
  68. S2CID 261855193
    .
  69. ^ "Thermodynamics: Albedo | National Snow and Ice Data Center". nsidc.org. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
  70. ^ "How does sea ice affect global climate?". NOAA. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
  71. ^ "Arctic Report Card 2012". NOAA. Archived from the original on 17 February 2013. Retrieved 8 May 2013.
  72. S2CID 189968828
    .
  73. S2CID 210273007
    .
  74. S2CID 218762126
    .
  75. doi:10.1017/9781009157940.001
    .
  76. doi:10.1017/9781009157896.011
  77. ^ "Understanding climate: Antarctic sea ice extent". NOAA Climate.gov. 14 March 2023. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  78. ^ a b Fox-Kemper, B., H.T. Hewitt, C. Xiao, G. Aðalgeirsdóttir, S.S. Drijfhout, T.L. Edwards, N.R. Golledge, M. Hemer, R.E. Kopp, G.  Krinner, A. Mix, D. Notz, S. Nowicki, I.S. Nurhati, L. Ruiz, J.-B. Sallée, A.B.A. Slangen, and Y. Yu, 2021: Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L.  Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1211–1362, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.011.
  79. S2CID 249696017
    .
  80. S2CID 146331663
    .
  81. ^ "Frozen Ground, the News Bulletin of the IPA". International Permafrost Association. 2014-02-10. Retrieved 2016-04-28.
  82. ^
    ISBN 9781009157896
    .
  83. S2CID 29486298
    .
  84. ISSN 1758-6798
    .
  85. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1996)009<1299:ivircs>2.0.co;2
    .
  86. ISBN 9780920081181
    .
  87. ^ Groisman, P. Ya, and D. R. Easterling, 1994: Variability and trends of total precipitation and snowfall over the United States and Canada. J. Climate, 7, 184–205.
  88. ^ Prinsenberg, S. J. 1988: Ice-cover and ice-ridge contributions to the freshwater contents of Hudson Bay and Foxe Basin. Arctic, 41, 6–11.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cryosphere.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cryosphere&oldid=1217115635"