Turkish Levantine

Levantines in Turkey or Turkish Levantines, refers to the descendants of

Origin and meaning

The term Levant comes from the French language. It means 'rising' (sun, i.e. East; the Latin word 'Orient' had the same original meaning) in French. Even though it has been used for Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine, it was used to refer to 'the sea in the east of Italy'.^[4]

Over time the term Levant was widened in scope. During the era of the Byzantines and the first years of the Ottomans, the term was used to refer to Western Mediterraneans such as Italians, Catalans, and French. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the term also was used for settlers that came from Central and Northern Europe.^[5]

History

Galata Kulesi

First Levantines

Levantines began to settle in Constantinople in 991 when they were given some trade privileges from the Byzantines. They settled on the Istanbul peninsula and

After the fall of

merchants who had traded with Byzantines.

The second significant group of Levantines were Venetians. At that time, Eastern Roman power was decreasing while Ottomans were gaining ground. Venetian merchants traded across the Mediterranean during the Byzantine era and built the Galata Tower. Venetians and Ottomans were also allies against the Genoese-Byzantine alliance.

Genoese were more active in the

also played an important role in the lives of Levantines.

The cities chosen by Levantines were settled in important trade routes and they were also safer places. Istanbul was the center of the Ottoman Empire and Izmir was a safe city located within a gulf and feeding Istanbul with its potential. Izmir was also a center for fresh produce such as grapes, figs, olives, and okra. Consequently, Venetians and French began to settle in Izmir after Genoese traders. Over time Italian influence began to decrease and British, Dutch, and German merchants increased their ties with the Anatolian coast. They also married other non-Catholic and non-Protestant Christians, especially Greek Orthodox.

Capitulations and Tanzimat

French merchants began to play an active role in Levant trade routes after the French-Ottoman alliance. Ottomans gave safe passage for French traders and approved the capitulations for the French state.

Especially after the

.

20th century

The Ottoman Empire fought against the

, most of the Levantines left Smyrna (now Izmir), and only a few ever returned.

After the

affected Levantines significantly. They quit their jobs and began to leave Turkey due to new wealth taxes imposed on non-Moslems, the removal of Capitulations that had been granted by the Ottoman Sultans, as well as to rapidly rising costs. Their settlements became government property.

There were significant problems in the Turkish economy after the Levantines and Greeks left the country. Turkey faced export problems; most of its exports remained in the hands of local Turkish villagers who had relied on the Levantine export houses. [However, the Turkish government left all capitulations of Levantines in order to break the monopoly for Turkish entrepreneurs.] the Turkish government under the new Turkish Republic did remove the Capitulations.

Present

Today, the exact number of Levantines is not clear. It is estimated that there are about 100-150 Levantines in Izmir. Another estimate put the number in the hundreds.

Less than 100 Levantine families are left in Istanbul. However, the number is not clear. The

There are also several Levantines left in

.

Levantine population in the past

Istanbul (Constantinople)

Constantinople (now Istanbul

)

The first Levantines in the Ottoman territories lived in the Pera (

Izmir (Smyrna)

In 1818, traveller

In 1856, the Ottoman state allowed Christians to have possessions. Consequently, the number of Levantines in Smyrna began to increase dramatically. The non-Muslim population was 15,000 in 1847, while it increased to 50,000 in 1880. Smyrna became a Levantine city and began to be known as 'the capital of the Levant', 'the pearl of the Levant', 'the Marseille of the Anatolian coast' or 'Marseille on the coast of Asia Minor'.[14]

19th-century sources estimated the population of Levantines between 16,000 and 25,000. This amounts of a minimum of 8% of Smyrna's population, while the maximum estimate is 17%.^[15]

Non-Muslim peoples of Smyrna lived in different quarters. There was one each quarter for Turks, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and Frenks (Levantines).^[16] 1914 population estimate indicates; 378,000 Muslims and 217,686 Orthodox Christians.^[17]

Mersin

The Çukurova region gained importance after the planting of cotton that came from the Americas. Therefore, the cities of Adana and Mersin began to attract Europeans. Levantines especially began to settle in Mersin, especially after the 19th century. European entrepreneurs created the 'Frenk Quarter' in Mersin. The estimated population during Ottoman times is below:^[12]

• In 1879, 625 Muslims, 147 Greeks, 37 Armenians, and 50 Catholics were living in Mersin.
• In 1891, 5,000 Muslims, 2,700 Greeks, 860 Armenians, and 260 Catholics were living in Mersin.

Culture

Language

There are some Levantine words that have been adopted in the Turkish language, such as "racon" (show-off) and "faça" (face).^[18]

Religion

Levantines are Western Christians, separated by their sects. Most of them are Catholics, while there are Protestants (mainly Anglicans and Baptists) among them.

Levantines have their own churches in some cities. They are named according to their ethnicity or sect, such as Alman Protestan Kilisesi (German Protestant Church) or İzmir Baptist Kilisesi (Izmir Baptist Church). Churches in Izmir are sometimes called the 'Levantine Church'.

Churches

• 
  Church of St. Anthony of Padua, Istanbul
• 
  Church of St. Anthony, Mersin
• 
  Crimea Memorial Church, İstanbul

Education

There are French, Italian, German, and Austrian schools in Istanbul and Izmir. However, most of their students are Turks. These schools are counted as private schools.

Schools

• 
  Saint Benoît French School [fr; tr], İstanbul
• 
  Italian School, İstanbul
• 
  St. George's Austrian High School, İstanbul

Architecture

One of the oldest buildings of the Levantines is Galata Tower in Istanbul. It was in the European quarter until 1453. After the fall of Istanbul, Venetians surrendered the tower to Ottomans.

Izmir is the most important city for the remaining historic Levantine architecture. Karşıyaka (Courdelion), Bornova (Bournabad), and Buca (Boudja) were known as the center of Levantines in Izmir until the Turkish War of Independence. Levantines left tens of buildings in Izmir; most of them are mansions once belonging to European merchant families. Some of them are listed below:^[19]

Name	Nationality	Place
Aliotti Mansion	Italian	Bornova
Lochner Mansion	German	Bornova
Penetti Mansion	Italian	Karşıyaka
Van der Zee Mansion	Dutch	Karşıyaka
De Jongh Mansion	British-Dutch	Buca
Rees Mansion	British	Buca
Baltazzi Mansion	Italian	Buca
Forbes Mansion	British	Buca
Giraud Mansion	French	Bornova
Peterson Mansion	Scottish	Bornova
Edwards Mansion	British	Bornova
Bardisbanian Mansion	Armenian	Bornova
Belhomme Mansion	British	Bornova
Whittall Mansion	British	Bornova

There are also some inns and konaks in Mersin that still stand today.

Notable people

• Sir Alfred Biliotti - Italian soldier and archeologist
• Livio Missir di Lusignano - Italian historian
• Giuseppe Donizetti - Italian musician
• Giovanni Scognamillo - Italian writer
• Count
  Camondo family
• Lucien Arkas - French businessman of Arkas holding company
• William Buttigieg - Maltese-British, former British Consul at Izmir
• Caroline Giraud Koç - French businesswoman

References