Albanian folk beliefs

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Albanian mythology
)
The symbol of the Sun often combined with the crescent Moon is commonly found in a variety of contexts of Albanian folk art, including traditional tattooing of northern tribes, grave art, jewellery and house carvings.[1] The worship of the Sun and the Moon is the earliest attested cult of the Albanians.[2]
Part of a series on
Albanians
By country
  • Native

Diaspora

Culture
Religion
Languages and dialects
Mythology
Mythologies
Types
Lists
Related concepts
See also

Albanian folk beliefs (

pagan.[3] Albanian folklore evolved over the centuries in a relatively isolated tribal culture and society.[4] Albanian folk tales and legends have been orally transmitted down the generations and are still very much alive in the mountainous regions of Albania, Kosovo, western North Macedonia, Montenegro and South Serbia and among the Arbëreshë in Italy and the Arvanites in Greece.[5]

In Albanian mythology, the physical

good fortune and fertility.[11] The cult of the Sun and the Moon also appears in Albanian legends and folk art.[12]

Albanian myths and legends are organized around the

Albanian folk poetry are the Kângë Kreshnikësh ("Songs of Heroes"), the traditional non-historical cycle of Albanian epic songs, based on the cult of the legendary hero.[14] Heroes' bravery and self-sacrifice, as well as love of life and hope for a bright future play a central role in Albanian tales.[16]

Documentation

Albanian collectors

Arbëresh writer Girolamo de Rada. (1814–1903)
Albanian Franciscan priest and scholar Shtjefën Gjeçovi. (1874–1929)

Albanian myths and legends are already attested in works written in Albanian as early as the 15th century,[17] however, the systematic collection of Albanian folklore material began only in the 19th century.[18]

One of the first Albanian collectors from Italy was the

Girolamo De Rada who—already imbued with a passion for his Albanian lineage in the first half of the 19th century—began collecting folklore material at an early age. Another important Arbëresh publisher of Albanian folklore was the linguist Demetrio Camarda, who included in his 1866 Appendice al Saggio di grammatologia comparata (Appendix to the Essay on the Comparative Grammar) specimens of prose, and in particular, Arbëreshë folk songs from Sicily and Calabria, Albania proper and Albanian settlements in Greece. De Rada and Camarda were the two main initiators of the Albanian nationalist cultural movement in Italy.[19] In Greece, the Arvanite writer Anastas Kullurioti published Albanian folklore material in his 1882 Albanikon alfavêtarion / Avabatar arbëror (Albanian Spelling Book).[20]

The

Shkodra, Louis Hyacinthe Hécquard, who was very interested in, and decided to prepare a book on, northern Albanian folklore. They travelled through the northern Albanian mountains and recorded folkloric materials which were published in French translation in the 1858 Hécquard's pioneering Histoire et description de la Haute Albanie ou Guégarie (History and Description of High Albania or Gegaria"). Jubani's own first collection of folklore—the original Albanian texts of the folk songs published by Hécquard—was lost in the flood that devastated the city of Shkodra on 13 January 1866. Jubani published in 1871 his Raccolta di canti popolari e rapsodie di poemi albanesi (Collection of Albanian Folk Songs and Rhapsodies)—the first collection of Gheg folk songs and the first folkloric work to be published by an Albanian who lived in Albania.[21]

Another important Albanian folklore collector was Thimi Mitko, a prominent representative of the Albanian community in Egypt. He began to take an interest in 1859 and started recording Albanian folklore material from the year 1866, providing also folk songs, riddles and tales for Demetrio Camarda's collection. Mitko's own collection—including 505 folk songs, and 39 tales and popular sayings, mainly from southern Albania—was finished in 1874 and published in the 1878 Greek-Albanian journal Alvaniki melissa / Belietta Sskiypetare (The Albanian Bee). This compilation was a milestone of Albanian folk literature being the first collection of Albanian material of scholarly quality. Indeed, Mitko compiled and classified the material according to genres, including sections on fairy tales, fables, anecdotes, children's songs, songs of seasonal festivities, love songs, wedding songs, funerary songs, epic and historical songs. He compiled his collection with Spiro Risto Dine who emigrated to Egypt in 1866. Dino himself published Valët e Detit (The Waves of the Sea), which, at the time of its publication in 1908, was the longest printed book in the Albanian language. The second part of Dine's collection was devoted to folk literature, including love songs, wedding songs, funerary songs, satirical verse, religious and didactic verses, folk tales, aphorisms, rhymes, popular beliefs and mythology.[22]

The first Albanian folklorist to collect the oral tradition in a more systematic manner for scholarly purposes was the

Kângë kreshnikësh dhe legenda (Songs of the Frontier Warriors and Legends), in the series called Visaret e Kombit (The Treasures of the Nation).[24][25]

From the second half of the 20th century much research has been done by the

Albanologist Robert Elsie
.

Foreign collectors

British anthropologist and writer Edith Durham. (1863–1944)

Foreign scholars first provided Europe with Albanian folklore in the second half of the 19th century, and thus set the beginning for the scholarly study of Albanian oral tradition.

Janina, Johann Georg von Hahn, who travelled throughout Albania and the Balkans in the middle of the 19th century and in 1854 he published Albanesische Studien (Albanian Studies). The German physician Karl H. Reinhold collected Albanian folklore material from Albanian sailors while he was serving as a doctor in the Greek navy and in 1855 he published Noctes Pelasgicae (Pelasgian Nights). The folklorist Giuseppe Pitrè published in 1875 a selection of Albanian folk tales from Sicily in Fiabe, novelle e racconti popolari siciliani (Sicilian Fables, Short Stories and Folk Tales).[26][20]

The next generation of scholars who became interested in collecting Albanian folk material were mainly philologists, among them the

Shkodra in Zur albanischen Sprachenkunde (On Albanian Linguistics) and Příspěvky ku poznání nářečí albánských uveřejňuje (Contributions to the Knowledge of Albanian Dialects). The German linguist and professor at the University of Graz, Gustav Meyer, published in 1884 fourteen Albanian tales in Albanische Märchen (Albanian Tales), and a selection of Tosk tales in the 1888 Albanian grammar (1888). His folklore material was republished in his Albanesische Studien (Albanian Studies). Danish Indo-Europeanist and professor at the University of Copenhagen, Holger Pedersen, visited Albania in 1893 to learn the language and to gather linguistic material. He recorded thirty-five Albanian folk tales from Albania and Corfu and published them in the 1895 Albanesische Texte mit Glossar (Albanian Texts with Glossary). Other Indo-European scholars who collected Albanian folklore material were German linguists Gustav Weigand and August Leskien.[26][20]

In the first half of the 20th century, British anthropologist Edith Durham visited northern Albania and collected folklore material on the Albanian tribal society. She published in 1909 her notable work High Albania, regarded as one of the best English-language books on Albania ever written.[27] From 1923 onward, Scottish scholar and anthropologist Margaret Hasluck collected Albanian folklore material when she lived in Albania. She published sixteen Albanian folk-stories translated in English in her 1931 Këndime Englisht–Shqip or Albanian–English Reader.[28]

Origin

Part of a series on
Indo-European topics
Languages
Extant
Extinct
Reconstructed
Hypothetical
Grammar
Other
Philology
Origins
Mainstream
Alternative and fringe
Archaeology
Chalcolithic (Copper Age)

Pontic Steppe

Caucasus

East Asia

Eastern Europe

Northern Europe

Bronze Age

Pontic Steppe

Northern/Eastern Steppe

Europe

South Asia

Iron Age

Steppe

Europe

Caucasus

India

Peoples and societies
Bronze Age
Iron Age

Indo-Aryans

Iranians

East Asia

Europe

Middle Ages

East Asia

Europe

Indo-Aryan

Iranian

Religion and mythology
Reconstructed
Historical

Indo-Aryan

Iranian

Others

Europe

Practices
Indo-European studies
Scholars
Institutes
Publications
See also:
Illyrian mythology

The elements of Albanian mythology are of

pagan.[3] Ancient Illyrian religion is considered to be one of the sources from which Albanian legend and folklore evolved,[29][30][31] reflecting a number of parallels with Ancient Greek and Roman mythologies.[32] Albanian legend also shows similarities with neighbouring Indo-European traditions, such as the oral epics with the South Slavs and the folk tales of the Greeks.[33]

Albanian mythology inherited the

Muji and Halili),[40][41] and the guard of the gates of the Underworld (the three-headed dog who never sleeps).[42]

History

Albanian

Justiniana Secunda, which was intended to become the centre of Byzantine administration.[45]

Prehistoric Illyrian symbols used on funeral monuments of the pre-Roman period have been used also in Roman times and continued into

stećci) in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the burial monuments used until recently in northern Albania, Kosovo, Montenegro, southern Serbia and northern North Macedonia. Such motifs are particularly related to the ancient cults of the Sun and Moon, survived until recently among northern Albanians.[46]

Among the Illyrians of early Albania the Sun was a widespread symbol. The spread of a

Christian iconography the symbol of the Sun is associated with immortality and a right to rule. The pagan cult of the Sun was almost identical to the Christian cult in the first centuries of Christianity. Varieties of the symbols of the Sun that Christian orders brought in the region found in the Albanian highlands sympathetic supporters, enriching the body of their symbols with new material.[47]

The historical-linguistic determination of the Albanian Christian terminology provides evidence that Albanians have already joined the process of conversion to Christianity in the Balkans since the

Bishop of Rome and used Latin as official language at least until the first half of the 8th century.[48]

At the time of the South Slavic incursion and the threat of ethnic turbulence in the Albanian-inhabited regions, the Christianization of the Albanians had already been completed and it had apparently developed for Albanians as a further identity-forming feature alongside the ethnic-linguistic unity.[49] Church administration, which was controlled by a thick network of Roman bishoprics, collapsed with the arrival of the Slavs. Between the early 7th century and the late 9th century the interior areas of the Balkans were deprived of church administration, and Christianity might have survived only as a popular tradition on a reduced degree.[50] Some Albanians living in the mountains, who were only partially affected by Romanization, probably sank back into the Classic Paganism.[51]

The reorganization of the Church as a cult institution in the region took a considerable amount of time.

Old Bulgarian language, the Albanians are mentioned for the first time with their old ethnonym Arbanasi as half-believers, a term which for Eastern Orthodox Christian Bulgarians meant Catholic Christian.[56] The Great Schism of 1054 involved Albania separating the region between Catholic Christianity in the north and Orthodox Christianity in the south.[57]

Ottoman times, often to escape higher taxes levied on Christian subjects, the majority of Albanians became Muslims. However one part retained Christian and pre-Christian beliefs.[58] In the 16th century the Albanians are firstly mentioned as worshippers of the Sun and the Moon.[2] British poet Lord Byron (1788–1824), describing the Albanian religious belief, reported that "The Greeks hardly regard them as Christians, or the Turks as Muslims; and in fact they are a mixture of both, and sometimes neither."[58] In Ottoman times education in the Albanian language was forbidden. The folk storytellers have played an important role in preserving Albanian folklore.[59] The lack of schools was compensated by the folk creativity, molding generations of Albanians with their forefathers' wisdom and experience and protecting them from assimilation processes.[44]

Between the 16th and 18th centuries, in Albania arrived also the

Communist regime
, and returning secular after the fall of the regime.

Albanian folklore evolved over the centuries in a relative isolated tribal culture and society,[4] and although several changes occurred in the Albanian belief system, an ancient substratum of pre-Christian beliefs has survived until today.[66][3][67] Ancient paganism persisted among Albanians, and within the inaccessible and deep interior it has continued to persist, or at most it was partially transformed by the Christian, Muslim and Marxist beliefs that were either to be introduced by choice or imposed by force.[68] Folk tales, myths and legends have been orally transmitted down the generations and are still very much alive in the mountainous regions of Albania, Kosovo and western North Macedonia, among the Arbëreshë in Italy and the Arvanites in Greece.[20][69]

Deities and divinities

Nature deities

Concepts

Mythical beings

Heroic characters

The Albanian terms for "hero" are trim (female: trimneshë), kreshnik or hero (female: heroinë). Some of the main heroes of the Albanian epic songs, legends and myths are:

  • Demigods
    • Drangue: semi-human winged warrior, whose weapons are meteoric stones, lightning-swords, thunderbolts, piles of trees and rocks
    • E Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit: "the Daughter of the Moon and the Sun", who is described as the lightning of the sky (Albanian: pika e qiellit) which falls everywhere from heaven on the mountains and the valleys and strikes pride and evil. She is sometimes described as bearing a star on her forehead and a moon on her chest.
  • Humans

Heroic motifs

The Albanian heroic songs are substantially permeated by the concepts contained in the

gjakmarrja.[186][134]

Another characteristic of Albanian heroic songs are

weapons. Their importance and the love which the heroes have for them are carefully represented in the songs, while they are rarely described physically. A common feature appearing in these songs is the desire for fame and glory, which is related to the courage of a person.[187]

Rituals

Festivals

Sharr Mountains
.

List of folk tales, legends, songs and ballads

Folk tales

Legends

  • Aga Ymer of Ulcinj
  • Ali Dost Dede of Gjirokastra
  • Baba Tomor
  • Muji and Halili cycle
  • Gjergj Elez Alia
  • Sari Salltëk
  • Scanderbeg and Ballaban
  • Shega and Vllastar
  • The Lover's Grave
  • Legend of Jabal-i Alhama
  • Princess Argjiro
  • Nora of Kelmendi
  • The Legend of Rozafa
  • Revenge Taken on Kastrati – a Legend of the Triepshi Tribe
  • The Founding of the Kelmendi Tribe
  • The Founding of the Kastrati Tribe
  • The Founding of the Hoti and Triepshi Tribes

Songs and Ballads

See also

  • Albanian folk poetry

References

  1. ^ Galaty et al. 2013, pp. 155–157; Tirta 2004, pp. 68–82; Elsie 2001, pp. 181, 244; Poghirc 1987, p. 178; Durham 1928a, p. 51; Durham 1928b, pp. 120–125.
  2. ^ a b c Elsie, Robert (ed.). "1534. Sebastian Franck: Albania: A Mighty Province of Europe". Texts and Documents of Albanian History.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Bonnefoy 1993, p. 253.
  4. ^ a b Elsie 2001, pp. vii–viii.
  5. ^ Elsie 1994, p. i; Elsie 2001b, p. ix.
  6. ^ Bonnefoy 1993, pp. 253–254; Skendi 1967, pp. 165–166.
  7. ^ Bonnefoy 1993, p. 253; Poghirc 1987, pp. 178–179 Tirta 2004, pp. 68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327
  8. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327; Poghirc 1987, pp. 178–179; Hysi 2006, pp. 349–361.
  9. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 42–102, 238–239, 318; Bonnefoy 1993, p. 253; Elsie 2001, pp. 35–36, 193, 244; Poghirc 1987, pp. 178–179; Hysi 2006, pp. 349–361.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h Tirta 2004, pp. 62–68.
  11. ^ Sinani 2010, pp. 105–106, 111; Stipčević 2009, p. 507; Doli 2009, pp. 127–128; Tirta 2004, pp. 62–68.
  12. ^ Poghirc 1987, p. 178; Tirta 2004, pp. 68–82; Elsie 2001, pp. 181, 244
  13. ^ Elsie 1994, p. i; Poghirc 1987, p. 179
  14. ^ a b Bonnefoy 1993, pp. 253–254.
  15. ^ Doja 2005, pp. 449–462; Kondi 2017, p. 279
  16. ^ a b c d e Sokoli 2013, p. 181.
  17. ^ Skendi 1954, pp. 27–28.
  18. ^ Skendi 1954, pp. 7–10.
  19. ^ Skendi 1967, pp. 116–117.
  20. ^ a b c d e f Elsie 1994, p. i.
  21. ^ Elsie 2007, pp. 1–2.
  22. ^ Elsie 2007, p. 2.
  23. ^ Elsie 2007, p. 3.
  24. ^ Elsie & Mathie-Heck 2004, p. xi.
  25. ^ Elsie 2010, p. 255.
  26. ^ a b c Elsie 2007, p. 1.
  27. ^ Elsie 2010, p. 120.
  28. ^ Elsie 2010, p. 185.
  29. ^ a b Stipčević 1977, p. 74.
  30. ^ West 2007, pp. 288.
  31. ^ Wilkes 1995, p. 280.
  32. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Poghirc 1987, p. 179.
  33. ^ West 2007, pp. 19.
  34. ^ West 2007, p. 68.
  35. ^ West 2007, pp. 151.
  36. ^ West 2007, pp. 243, 266.
  37. ^ a b c d e f g h i Treimer 1971, pp. 31–33.
  38. ^ a b West 2007, p. 233.
  39. ^ West 2007, pp. 385–386.
  40. ^ Juka 1984, p. 64.
  41. ^ Neziri 2008, pp. 80–82.
  42. ^ West 2007, pp. 392.
  43. ^ a b c Poghirc 1987, pp. 178–179.
  44. ^ a b Sokoli 2013, p. 184.
  45. ^ Belgiorno de Stefano 2014, pp. 2–3.
  46. ^ Dobruna-Salihu 2005, p. 345–346.
  47. ^ Galaty et al. 2013, p. 156.
  48. ^ Demiraj 2011, pp. 73–74.
  49. ^ Demiraj 2002, pp. 36–37.
  50. ^ a b Fischer & Schmitt 2022, p. 25.
  51. ^ Demiraj 2002, p. 26.
  52. ^ Demiraj 2011, p. 63.
  53. ^ Demiraj 2011, pp. 63–64, 70.
  54. ^ Demiraj 2011, p. 64.
  55. ^ Demiraj 2011, p. 71.
  56. ^ Elsie 2003, p. 3.
  57. ^ Ramet 1989, p. 381.
  58. ^ a b c Esposito 2004, p. 20.
  59. ^ Sokoli 2013, pp. 182–183.
  60. ^ Kressing & Kaser 2002, p. 72.
  61. ^ Skendi 1967, pp. 244–245.
  62. ^ Elsie 2010, p. 40.
  63. ^ Elsie 2019, p. 116.
  64. ^ Skendi 1967b, pp. 12–13.
  65. ^ Minkov 2004, pp. 103–104.
  66. ^ a b c d Poghirc 1987, p. 178.
  67. ^ a b c d e Skendi 1967, pp. 165–166.
  68. ^ Norris 1993, p. 34.
  69. ^ Elsie 2001b, p. ix.
  70. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Doja 2005, pp. 449–462.
  71. ^ a b Demiraj 2002, p. 34.
  72. ^ Lambertz 1922, pp. 47, 143–144.
  73. ^ a b c d e Tirta 2004, pp. 121–132.
  74. ^ a b c d Tirta 2004, pp. 68–82.
  75. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 244.
  76. ^ Elsie 2001, pp. 181, 244.
  77. ^ a b Lambertz 1973, p. 509.
  78. ^ a b Gjoni 2012, p. 81.
  79. ^ a b c Stipčević 2009, p. 506.
  80. ^ a b Stipčević 2009, pp. 505–506.
  81. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 61–62.
  82. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 87–110.
  83. ^ Watkins 1995, pp. 164.
  84. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 116–121.
  85. ^ a b Tirta 2004, pp. 82–83, 100–102.
  86. ^ a b c d e Tirta 2004, pp. 68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327.
  87. ^ Hyllested & Joseph 2022, p. 232.
  88. ^ Mann 1952, p. 32.
  89. ^ Feizi 1929, p. 82.
  90. ^ Sedaj 1982, p. 75.
  91. ^ Demiraj 1997, pp. 431–432.
  92. ^ Mann 1977, p. 72.
  93. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 258–259.
  94. ^ a b c d e Elsie 2001, pp. 238–259.
  95. ^ a b Lambertz 1922, p. 49.
  96. ^ a b c Lambertz 1922, pp. 47, 49, 145–146.
  97. ^ a b c Elsie 2001, p. 161.
  98. ^ a b c Elsie 2001, pp. 241–242.
  99. ^ a b c d e Elsie 2001, pp. 46–47, 74–76, 153–156.
  100. ^ Shuteriqi 1959, p. 66.
  101. ^ Lambertz 1922, p. 77.
  102. ^ Tirta 2004, p. 72.
  103. ^ a b Elsie 2001, pp. 257–259.
  104. ^ a b Lambertz 1922, pp. 47–49, 143–144.
  105. ^ Hyllested & Joseph 2022, p. 235.
  106. ^ Ushaku 1988, pp. 92, 97.
  107. ^ Mann 1948, pp. 583–584.
  108. ^ a b Elsie 2001, pp. 79–81.
  109. ^ Elsie 2001, pp. 252–254.
  110. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 176.
  111. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 147–152, 239, 409.
  112. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 167–268.
  113. ^ a b Tirta 2004, pp. 111–121, 243, 273, 398.
  114. ^ Lurker 2005, p. 207.
  115. ^ Elsie 2001b, pp. 165–169.
  116. ^ a b Tirta 2004, pp. 115, 132.
  117. ^ Elsie 2001b, pp. 22, 48, 130.
  118. ^ Novik 2015, p. 268.
  119. ^ a b Tirta 2004, pp. 176–181.
  120. ^ Tirta 2004, p. 37.
  121. ^ Lambertz 1922, pp. 47, 146–148.
  122. ^ a b Tirta 2004, pp. 152–156.
  123. ^ Elsie 2001, pp. 48–49.
  124. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 67–68.
  125. ^ Elsie 2001, pp. 101, 191.
  126. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 260.
  127. ^ a b Doli 2009, pp. 127–128.
  128. ^ a b Stipčević 2009, p. 507.
  129. ^ Sinani 2010, pp. 105–106, 111.
  130. ^ Skendi 1954.
  131. ^ Watkins 1995, p. 67.
  132. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 42–102, 238–239, 318.
  133. ^ Elsie 2001b, pp. 35–36.
  134. ^ a b Watkins 1995, pp. pp=83, 164, 443.
  135. ^ Hysi 2006, pp. 349–361.
  136. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 191.
  137. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 358–391.
  138. ^ a b Tirta 2004, pp. 135, 199–200, 227–243.
  139. ^ a b c d e Doja 2000.
  140. ^ Kondi 2017, p. 279.
  141. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 199–200, 205.
  142. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 169, 205, 227.
  143. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 19, 20, 66–68, 145–170.
  144. ^ Stipčević 2009, p. 508.
  145. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 26, 66, 324–326.
  146. ^ Poghirc 1987, p. 179–180.
  147. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 193.
  148. ^ Pipa 1978, p. 55.
  149. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 240.
  150. ^ Elsie 2001, pp. 160–161.
  151. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 4.
  152. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Tirta 2004, pp. 132–137.
  153. ^ Elsie 2001, pp. 18–19.
  154. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 20.
  155. ^ Tirta 2004, p. 407.
  156. ^ Elsie 2001, pp. 20–21.
  157. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 49.
  158. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 50.
  159. ^ Elsie 2001, pp. 68–69.
  160. ^ a b Elsie 2001, p. 69.
  161. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 71.
  162. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 90.
  163. ^ a b Elsie 2001, p. 107.
  164. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 103.
  165. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 104.
  166. ^ a b Elsie 2001, p. 113.
  167. ^ Elsie 2001, pp. 130.
  168. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 140.
  169. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 150.
  170. ^ Elsie 2001, pp. 150–151.
  171. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 151.
  172. ^ a b Elsie 2001, p. 152.
  173. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 153.
  174. ^ a b Elsie 2001, p. 158.
  175. ^ Elsie 2001, pp. 162–163.
  176. ^ a b Elsie 2001, p. 164.
  177. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 167.
  178. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 185.
  179. ^ Elsie 2001b, pp. 155, 230.
  180. ^ Elsie 2001b, pp. 22–23.
  181. ^ a b Novik 2015, p. 266.
  182. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 236.
  183. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 111, 193–194.
  184. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 79.
  185. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 134.
  186. ^ Skendi 1954, pp. 83, 86–91.
  187. ^ Skendi 1954, pp. 91–92.
  188. ^ Elsie 2001, pp. 36–40.
  189. ^ Elsie 2001, pp. 166–171.
  190. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 307–313.
  191. ^ Elsie 2001, p. 215.
  192. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 216–227.
  193. ^ Kondi 2017, pp. 277–288.
  194. ^ Tirta 2004, p. 87.
  195. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 253–255.
  196. ^ Elsie 2001, pp. 259–260.
  197. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 249–251.

Bibliography

Further reading