Arbovirus
This article needs to be updated.(September 2015) |
Arbovirus infection | |
---|---|
Infectious disease |
Arbovirus is an informal name for any
Signs and symptoms
The incubation period – the time between when infection occurs and when symptoms appear – varies from virus to virus, but is usually limited between 2 and 15 days for arboviruses.
Arbovirus | Disease(s) | Incubation period | Symptoms | Duration of symptoms | Complications | Case fatality rate | Vector (s)
|
Primary host(s) | Geographic distribution | Does infection provide lifelong immunity? |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dengue virus | Dengue fever | 3–14 days | Asymptomatic in most cases; fever, headache, rash, muscle, and joint pains | 7–10 days | Shock, internal bleeding, and organ damage | <1% with treatment, 1–5% without; about 25% in severe cases | Aedes mosquitoes, especially Aedes aegypti | Humans | Near the equator globally | Varies[note 1] |
Japanese encephalitis virus | Japanese encephalitis | 5–15 days | Asymptomatic in most cases; fever, headache, fatigue, nausea, and vomiting | Encephalitis, seizures, paralysis, coma, and long-term brain damage | 20–30% in encephalitis cases | Culex mosquitoes, especially Culex tritaeniorhynchus | Domestic pigs and wading birds
|
Southeast and East Asia | Yes | |
Rift Valley fever virus | Rift Valley fever | 2–6 days | Fever, headache, myalgia and liver abnormalities | 4–7 days | Hemorrhagic fever, meningoencephalitis | 1% in humans; in pregnant livestock, 100% fatality rate for fetuses | Culex tritaeniorhynchus and Aedes vexans | Hipposideros abae
|
Eastern, Southern, and Western Africa | Yes |
Tick-borne encephalitis virus | Tick-borne encephalitis | 7–14 days | Fever, headache, muscle pain, nausea, vomiting, meningitis, and encephalitis | Paralysis and long-term brain damage | 1–2% | Ixodes scapularis, Ixodes ricinus, and Ixodes persulcatus | Small rodents | Eastern Europe and Southern Russia | Yes | |
West Nile virus | West Nile fever, encephalitis | 2–15 days | Asymptomatic in most cases; fever, headache, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, rash | 3–6 days | Swollen lymph nodes, meningitis, encephalitis, acute flaccid paralysis
|
3–15% in severe cases | Culex mosquitoes | Passerine birds | North America, Europe, West and Central Asia, Oceania, and Africa | Yes |
Yellow fever virus | Yellow fever | 3–6 days | Fever, headache, back pain, loss of appetite, nausea, and vomiting | 3–4 days | Jaundice, liver damage, gastrointestinal bleeding, recurring fever | 3% in general; 20% in cases with severe complications | Aedes mosquitoes, especially Aedes aegypti | Primates | Tropical and subtropical regions of South America and Africa | Yes |
- ^ Infection provides lifelong immunity to the specific serotype causing illness, but temporary immunity to other serotypes.
Cause
Transmission
Arboviruses maintain themselves in nature by going through a cycle between a
Transmission between the vector and the host occurs when the vector feeds on the blood of the vertebrate, wherein the virus that has established an infection in the salivary glands of the vector comes into contact with the host's blood.
An example of this vector-host relationship can be observed in the transmission of the West Nile virus. Female mosquitoes of the genus Culex prefer to consume the blood of passerine birds, making them the hosts of the virus.[17] When these birds are infected, the virus amplifies, potentially infecting multiple mosquitoes that feed on its blood.[15] These infected mosquitoes may go on to further transmit the virus to more birds. If the mosquito is unable to find its preferred food source, it will choose another. Human blood is sometimes consumed, but since the West Nile virus does not replicate that well in mammals, humans are considered a dead-end host.[16][18]
In humans
Person-to-person transmission of arboviruses is not common, but can occur. Blood transfusions, organ transplantation, and the use of blood products can transmit arboviruses if the virus is present in the donor's blood or organs.[19][20][21] Because of this, blood and organs are often screened for viruses before being administered.[21][22] Rarely, vertical transmission, or mother-to-child transmission, has been observed in infected pregnant[23] and breastfeeding women.[24] Exposure to used needles may also transmit arboviruses if they have been used by an infected person or animal.[25] This puts intravenous drug users and healthcare workers at risk for infection in regions where the arbovirus may be spreading in human populations.[21][23]
Virology
This section is missing information about Jamestown Canyon Virus, La Crosse virus, Powassan virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Saint Louis encephalitis, Western equine encephalitis virus, and more.(September 2015) |
Arboviruses are a polyphyletic group, belonging to various viral genera and therefore exhibiting different virologic characteristics.
Arbovirus | Genome type | Genome length | Diameter | Capsid shape | Enveloped? | Viral entry | Replication site | Viral shedding | Infected cell(s) | Genetic variability |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
African swine fever virus | dsDNA | 170-190 kilobases | ~200 nm | Icosahedral | Yes | Endocytosis | Nucleus | Budding | Endothelial cells and red and white blood cells
|
22 genotypes |
Chikungunya virus (CHIKV)
|
+ssRNA | 11.6 kilobases | 60 - 70 nm | Icosahedral | Yes | Membrane fusion | Cell cytoplasm | Budding | endothelial cells, primary fibroblasts and macrophages
|
Three genotypes |
Dengue virus | +ssRNA | ~11,000 nucleobases | ~50 nm | Icosahedral | Yes | Membrane fusion | Cell cytoplasm | Budding | Langerhans and white blood cells | Four serotypes |
Japanese encephalitis virus
|
+ssRNA | ~11,000 nucleobases | ~50 nm | Icosahedral | Yes | Membrane fusion | Cell cytoplasm | Budding | Five genotypes | |
Rift Valley fever virus
|
-ssRNA | Spherical | Yes | Cell cytoplasm | Budding | None[note 1] | ||||
Tick-borne encephalitis virus | +ssRNA | ~11,000 nucleobases | 40-50 nm | Icosahedral | Yes | Membrane fusion | Cell cytoplasm | Budding | Neural cells | Five genotypes |
West Nile virus | +ssRNA | ~11,000 nucleobases (11-12 kilo bases) | 45-50 nm | Icosahedral | Yes | Membrane fusion | Cell cytoplasm | Budding | ||
Yellow fever virus
|
+ssRNA | ~11,000 nucleobases | 40-60 nm | Icosahedral | Yes | Membrane fusion | Cell cytoplasm | Budding | Hepatocytes and white blood cells | |
Zika virus | +ssRNA | 10794 nucleobases | 40 nm | Icosahedral | Yes | Membrane fusion | Cell cytoplasm | Budding |
- ^ No significant distinct genetic populations exist due to the species having recent common ancestry.
Diagnosis
Preliminary diagnosis of arbovirus infection is usually based on clinical presentations of symptoms, places and dates of travel, activities, and epidemiological history of the location where infection occurred.[26] Definitive diagnosis is typically made in a laboratory by employing some combination of blood tests, particularly immunologic, serologic and/or virologic techniques such as ELISA,[26][27] complement fixation,[27] polymerase chain reaction,[27][28] neutralization test,[29] and hemagglutination-inhibition test.[30]
Classification
In the past, arboviruses were organized into one of four groups: A, B, C, and D. Group A denoted members of the genus Alphavirus,
- Order Bunyavirales (Baltimore class V)
- Genus Banyangvirus
- Huaiyangshan banyangvirus
- Genus Orthobunyavirus
- Bunyamwera virus
- California encephalitis virus
- Jamestown Canyon virus
- La Crosse encephalitis virus
- Genus Orthonairovirus
- Genus Phlebovirus
- Heartland virus
- Rift Valley fever virus
- Toscana virus
- Genus
- Family Flaviviridae (Baltimore class IV)
- Genus Flavivirus
- Mosquito-borne viruses
- Dengue virus group
- Japanese encephalitis virus group
- Japanese encephalitis virus
- Murray Valley encephalitis virus
- St. Louis encephalitisvirus
- West Nile virus
- Spondweni virus group
- Yellow fever virus group
- Yellow fever virus
- Tick-borne viruses
- Mammalian tick-borne virus group
- Kyasanur forest diseasevirus
- Tick-borne encephalitis virus
- Mammalian tick-borne virus group
- Mosquito-borne viruses
- Genus Flavivirus
- Family Reoviridae(Baltimore class III)
- Subfamily Sedoreovirinae
- Subfamily Spinareovirinae
- Genus Coltivirus
- Colorado tick fever virus
- Genus Coltivirus
- Family Togaviridae(Baltimore class IV)
- Genus Alphavirus
- Chikungunya virus'
- Eastern equine encephalitis virus
- Ross River virus
- Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus
- Western equine encephalitis virus'
- Genus Alphavirus
Prevention
People can also reduce the risk of getting bitten by arthropods by employing personal protective measures such as sleeping under mosquito nets, wearing protective clothing, applying insect repellents such as permethrin and DEET to clothing and exposed skin, and (where possible) avoiding areas known to harbor high arthropod populations. Arboviral encephalitis can be prevented in two major ways: personal protective measures and public health measures to reduce the population of infected mosquitoes. Personal measures include reducing time outdoors particularly in early evening hours, wearing long pants and long sleeved shirts and applying mosquito repellent to exposed skin areas. Public health measures often require spraying of insecticides to kill juvenile (larvae) and adult mosquitoes.[37]
Vaccination
Vaccines are available for the following arboviral diseases:
- Japanese encephalitis[38]
- Yellow fever[39]
- Tick-borne encephalitis[40]
- Rift Valley Fever (only veterinary use)[41]
Vaccines are in development for the following arboviral diseases:
- Zika Virus[42]
- Dengue fever[43]
- Eastern Equine encephalitis[44]
- West Nile[45]
- Chikungunya[46]
- Rift Valley Fever[41]
Treatment
Because the arboviral encephalitides are viral diseases, antibiotics are not an effective form of treatment and no effective antiviral drugs have yet been discovered. Treatment is supportive, attempting to deal with problems such as swelling of the brain, loss of the automatic breathing activity of the brain and other treatable complications like bacterial pneumonia.[1]
The WHO caution against the use of aspirin and ibuprofen as they can increase the risk of bleeding.[47][48]
Epidemiology
Most arboviruses are located in tropical areas, however as a group they have a global distribution. The warm climate conditions found in tropical areas allows for year-round transmission by the arthropod vectors. Other important factors determining geographic distribution of arthropod vectors include rainfall, humidity, and vegetation.[49]
Mapping methods such as GIS and GPS have allowed for spatial and temporal analyses of arboviruses. Tagging cases or breeding sites geographically has allowed for deeper examination of vector transmission.[50]
To see the epidemiology of specific arboviruses, the following resources hold maps, fact sheets, and reports on arboviruses and arboviral epidemics.
Resource | Description | Link |
---|---|---|
World Health Organization | The WHO compiles studies and maps of the distribution, risk factors, and prevention of specific viruses.
The WHO also hosts DengueNet, a database which can be queried about Dengue cases. |
http://www.who.int/en/ |
CDC ArboNet Dynamic Map | This interactive map is created by USGS using data from the CDC ArboNET. It provides distribution maps of cases in humans and vectors in the United States. | https://web.archive.org/web/20161215234534/http://diseasemaps.usgs.gov/mapviewer/ |
Center for Disease Control ArboCatalog | The ArboCatalog documents probable arboviruses recorded by the Center for Disease Control, and provides detailed information about the viruses. | https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Arbocat/Default.aspx |
History
Year | Event |
---|---|
1800s | Dengue fever epidemics occur globally |
1898–1914 | First large scale effort to prevent arbovirus infection takes place in Florida, Havana, and the Panama Canal Zone |
1901 | First arbovirus, the yellow fever virus, is discovered |
1906 | Dengue fever transmission is discovered |
1936 | Tick-borne encephalitis virus is discovered |
1937 | Yellow fever vaccine is invented |
1937 | West Nile virus is discovered |
1950s | Japanese encephalitis vaccines are invented |
1980s | Insecticide treated mosquito nets are developed |
1999 | West Nile virus reaches the Western Hemisphere |
Late 1900s | Dengue fever spreads globally |
Arboviruses were not known to exist until the
See also
- List of diseases spread by invertebrates
- List of insect-borne diseases
- Mosquito-borne disease
- Robovirus
- Tibovirus
- Tick-borne disease
References
- ^ a b "CDC Information on Arboviral Encephalitides". Archived from the original on January 27, 2007. Retrieved 2007-02-07.
- S2CID 18713459.
- ^ "Plant arboviruses: major threats to food security". Microbiology Society. Retrieved 20 May 2022.
- ^ Stephen J. Schueler; John H. Beckett; D. Scott Gettings (2 April 2008). "Arbovirus Infection Symptoms". freeMD. Archived from the original on 8 September 2008. Retrieved 22 June 2013.
- S2CID 13074756.
- PMID 20403310.
- S2CID 30778922.
- ^ "Human blood contains the secret ingredient for mosquito eggs". May 4, 2011. Archived from the original on June 30, 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2013.
- OCLC 207797812.
- PMID 20403307.
- ^ "Life cycle of Hard Ticks that Spread Disease". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 26 July 2012. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
- PMID 16223950.
- S2CID 32742815.
- PMID 18000543.
- ^ PMID 16358422.
- ^ S2CID 28937401.
- S2CID 20531226.
- PMID 22693557.
- PMID 18832256.
- S2CID 19419227.
- ^ PMID 19392949.
- PMID 15071426.
- ^ PMID 20130380.
- PMID 12375687.
- S2CID 25170132.
- ^ a b "Arboviral Diagnostic Testing". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Retrieved April 17, 2013.
- ^ a b c "Arbovirus Antibodies Test". Medical Health Tests. March 27, 2012. Retrieved April 17, 2013.
- PMID 11337046.
- PMID 4216288.
- PMID 5165837.
- PMID 4128825.
- PMID 1155702.
- S2CID 625707.
- S2CID 39810753.
- ISBN 978-0849343872. Retrieved 16 June 2013.
- PMID 7403901.
- ^ "Preventing Mosquito Bites". North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services.
- ^ "Japanese Encephalitis Vaccine, What You Need to Know" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). December 7, 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 March 2013. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
- ^ "Yellow Fever Vaccine, What You Need to Know" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). March 30, 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
- ^ "Tick-borne Encephalitis". World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on October 4, 2014. Retrieved 5 November 2019.
- ^ S2CID 201805546.
- ^ "Database Access - UNSW Library".
- ^ "Dengue fever vaccine program". Global Vaccines. Archived from the original on 9 January 2013. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
- PMID 22222869.
- ^ Young, S. (August 12, 2012). "Few Options in the West Nile Fight". MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 22 October 2012. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
- PMID 29259782.
- ^ "Dengue and severe dengue -section What is the treatment for dengue?". WHO. 24 October 2019.
- PMID 31701855.
- PMID 12234522.
- S2CID 29858335.
- PMID 16435764.
- PMID 18013904.
- PMID 22494122.
- PMID 9665979.
- PMID 2224837.
- PMID 16559270.
- ISBN 978-0615827735.
- .
- PMID 13084817.
- ^ Sun, L. H. (13 September 2012). "West Nile epidemic on track to be deadliest ever: CDC". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 24 June 2013. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
- S2CID 215154729.
- S2CID 4232236.
- PMID 21079655.
- ^ a b "Tropical Diseases and the Construction of the Panama Canal, 1904–1914". Contagion: Historical Views of Diseases and Epidemics. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
- ^ "Malaria: The Panama Canal". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 8 February 2010. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
- PMID 12862098.
- ^ "Yellow Fever and Malaria in the Canal". PBS. American Experience. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
External links
- Beran, G. W., ed. (1994). Handbook of Zoonoses. CRC Press. ISBN 9780849332067.