Vithoba
Vithoba | |
---|---|
Devanagari | विठ्ठल |
Sanskrit transliteration | Viṭhobā |
Affiliation | Form of Vishnu/Krishna |
Abode | Pandharpur |
Weapon | Chakra, Shankha |
Day | Wednesday |
Mount | Garuda |
Consort | Rakhumai, Rahi, Satyabhama |
Vithoba (IAST: Viṭhobā), also known as Vitthala (IAST: Viṭṭhala), and Panduranga (IAST: Pāṇḍuraṅga), is a Hindu god predominantly worshipped in the Indian state of Maharashtra and Karnataka. He is a form of the god Vishnu in his avatar: Krishna. Vithoba is often depicted as a dark young boy, standing arms akimbo on a brick, sometimes accompanied by his consort Rakhumai.
Vithoba is the focus of an essentially
The historiography of Vithoba and his sect is an area of continuing debate, even regarding his name. Though the origins of both his sect and his main temple are likewise debated, there is clear evidence that they already existed by the 13th century.
Etymology and other names
Part of a series on |
Vaishnavism |
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Vithoba (
There are several theories about the origins and meanings of these names.
According to research scholar M. S. Mate of the
Panduranga (
Finally, Vithoba is also addressed by the names of Vishnu like Hari and Narayana, in the Vaishnava sect.[12]
Origins and development
Reconstruction of the historical development of Vithoba worship has been much debated. In particular, several alternative theories have been proposed regarding the earliest stages as well as the point at which he came to be recognised as a distinct deity. The Pandurangashtakam stotra, a hymn attributed to Adi Shankara of the 8th century, indicates that Vithoba worship had already existed at an early date.[13]
According to Richard Maxwell Eaton, author of A Social History of the Deccan,
Christian Lee Novetzke of the University of Washington suggests that Vithoba's worship migrated from Karnataka to the formerly Shaiva city of Pandharpur some time before 1000 CE; but under the possible influence of a Krishna-worshipping Mahanubhava sect, the town was transformed into a Vaishnava center of pilgrimage. This proposal is consistent with contemporary remnants of Shaiva worship in the town.[15]
The religious historian
Vithoba is associated more with "compassion, an infinite love and tenderness for his bhaktas (devotees) that can be compared to the love of the mother for her children pining for the presence of his devotees the way a cow pines for her far-away calf."[19]
G. A. Deleury, author of The cult of Vithoba, proposes that the image of Vithoba is a viragal (hero stone), which was later identified with Vishnu in his form as Krishna, and that Pundalik transformed the Puranic, ritualistic puja worship into more idealised bhakti worship—"interiorized adoration prescinding caste distinction and institutional priesthood .."[20] Indologist Dr. Tilak suggests that Vithoba emerged as "an alternative to the existing pantheon" of brahminical deities (related to classical, ritualistic Hinduism). The emergence of Vithoba was concurrent with the rise of a "new type of lay devotee", the Varkari. While Vishnu and Shiva were bound in rigid ritualistic worship and Brahmin (priestly) control, Vithoba, "the God of the subaltern, became increasingly human." Vithoba is often praised as the protector of the poor and needy.[21] Stevenson (1843) suggests that Vithoba could have been a Jain saint, as the Vithoba images were similar to Jain images.[22]
Pandharpur temple and inscriptions
Scholastic investigation of Vithoba's history often begins with consideration of the dating of the chief temple at Pandharpur, which is believed to be the earliest Vithoba temple.[23] The oldest part of the temple dates to the Yadava period of the 12th and 13th centuries. Most of the temple is believed to have been built in the 17th century, though addition to the temple has never ceased.[24] The date the temple was first established is unclear to Bhandarkar, but he insists there is clear evidence to suggest it existed by the 13th century.[6] According to S. G. Tulpule, the temple stood as early as 1189.[24] In fact, a monument dated 1189 records establishment of a small Vithoba shrine at the present location of the temple; thus, Tulpule concludes, the worship of Vithoba predates 1189.[25]
A stone inscription dated 1237, found on an overhead beam of the present Vithoba temple, mentions that the Hoysala king
Ranade believes that an inscription, found in
Central image
The physical characteristics of the central
Deleury suggests that although the temple may have been built in the 13th century, given the
Pundalik
The devotee Pundalik, thrower of the brick (see Legend below), is a major character in the legends of Vithoba. He is commonly perceived to be a historical figure, connected with the establishment and propagation of the Vithoba-centric Varkari sect.[30] Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar considers Pundalik to be the founder of the Varkari sect and the one who promulgated the sect in Maratha country.[31] Stevenson (1843) goes further, suggesting he might have been a Jain or a Buddhist, since Varkari tradition is a combination of Jain and Buddhist morals, and Vithoba is viewed as Vishnu in his form as Buddha.[32] Frazer, Edwards and P.R. Bhandarkar (1922) all suggest that Pundalik tried to unify Shiva and Vishnu, and that this sect originated in Karnataka.[33] Ranade (1933) thinks that Pundalik, a Kannada saint, was not only the founder of the Varkari sect but also the first great devotee or first high priest of the Pandharpur temple.[34] Upadhyaya supports the priest theory but declines the Kannada origin theory.[33] According to M. S. Mate, Pundalik was instrumental in coaxing the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana to build the Pandharpur temple to Vishnu, placing him in the early 12th century.[8] Other scholars like Raeside (1965), Dhanpalvar (1972), and Vaudeville (1974) have questioned the historicity of Pundalik altogether, and dismissed him as a mythical figure.[35]
Identifications
Primarily, there are three Hindu deities associated with Vithoba: Vishnu, Krishna and Shiva. Gautama Buddha is also associated with Vithoba, consistent with Hindu deification of the Buddha as the ninth incarnation of Vishnu. However, Varkari consider Vithoba to be the svarupa (original)[36] Vishnu himself, not an Avatar (manifestation) of Vishnu like Krishna,[37] despite legends and consorts linking Vithoba to Krishna. However, even the Mahanubhavas, who rose in the 13th century as a Krishna-worshipping sect, not only dismissed the notion that Vithoba is Krishna but also frequently vilified Vithoba.[38]
In some traditions though, Vithoba is also worshipped as a form of Shiva. The Dhangars still consider Vithoba to be a brother of the god
Vithoba's image replaces the traditional representation of
Iconography
All Vithoba images are generally modelled on his central image in Pandharpur. The Pandharpur image is a black basalt sculpture that is 3 feet 9 inches (1.14 m) tall. Vithoba is depicted as dark young boy. The poet-saints have called him "Para-brahman with a dark complexion".[46] He wears high, conical headgear or a crown, interpreted as Shiva's symbol—the Linga. Thus, according to Zelliot, Vithoba represents Shiva as well as Vishnu.[47] The first Varkari poet-saint, Dnyaneshwar (13th century), states that Vithoba (Vishnu) carries Shiva, who according to Vaishnavism is Vishnu's first and foremost devotee, on his own head.[48]
Vithoba is shown standing arms-akimbo on the brick thrown by the devotee Pundalik. He wears a necklace of
The Pandharpur image, when not clothed by its attendant priest to receive devotees, provides Vithoba with the detailed features distinctive of a male body, visible in full relief. However, close inspection of the stonework reveals the outline of a loincloth, supported by a kambarband (waist belt), traced by thin, light carvings.[4][9] Other images and pictures depict Vithoba clothed, usually with pitambara – a yellow dhoti and various gold ornaments—the manner in which he is attired by the priests in the daily rites.
The Pandharpur image also bears, on the left breast, the mark known as the
Consorts
Vithoba is usually depicted with his main consort, Rakhumai, on his left side. Rakhumai (or Rakhamai) literally means 'mother Rukmini'. Rukmini is traditionally viewed as the wife of Krishna. Hindus generally consider Krishna to be a form of Vishnu, hence his consort as a form of
Worship
Vithoba is a popular deity in Maharashtra and Karnataka; devotees also exist in
Two distinct traditions revolve around the worship of Vithoba in Maharashtra: ritual worship inside the temple by the Brahmin priests of the Badva family; and spiritual worship by the Varkaris.[55] The ritual worship includes five daily rites. First, at about 3 am, is an arati to awaken the god, called kākaḍāratī. Next comes the pañcāmṛtapūjā, a puja that includes a bath with five (pancha) sweet substances called panchamrita. The image is then dressed to receive morning devotions. The third rite is another puja involving re-dressing and lunch at noon. This is known as madhyāhṇapūjā. Afternoon devotions are followed by a fourth rite for dinner at sunset—the aparāhṇapūjā. The final rite is śerāratī, an arati for putting the god to sleep.[56] In addition to the rites at the main temple in Pandharpur, Haridasa traditions dedicated to Vitthala flourish in Karnataka.
Varkari sect
The
All these poet-saints, and others like
Haridasa sect
Haridasa means servant (dasa) of Vishnu (Hari). According to Haridasa tradition, their sampradaya, also known as Haridasa-kuta, was founded by Achalananda Vitthala (c. 888). It is a distinct branch within Vaishnavism, centered on Vitthala (the Haridasa–Kannada name for Vithoba).[66] Where Varkari are normally associated with Maharashtra, Haridasa are normally associated with Karnataka. The scholar Sharma considers Vithoba worship first emerged in Karnataka, only later moving to Maharashtra. He argues this on the basis of the reference by Dnyaneshwar, mentioned in section "Varkari sect" above.[67] Lutgendorf credits the movement to Vyasatirtha (1478–1539), the royal guru (rajguru) to king Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara empire. Vitthala enjoyed royal patronage in this era. Krishnadevaraya is also credited with building Vitthala's temple at the then capital city Vijayanagara (modern Hampi).[68]
Haridasas consider the temple of Pandharpur to be sacred, as well that of Hampi, and worship Vitthala along with forms of Krishna.[69] Haridasa literature generally deals with praise dedicated to Vitthala and Krishna. Haridasa poets like Vijaya Vitthala, Gopala Vitthala, Jagannatha Vitthala, Venugopala Vitthala and Mohana Vitthala assumed pen-names ending with "Vitthala", as an act of devotion.[70] The Haridasa poet Purandara Dasa or Purandara Vitthala (1484–1564), "father of Carnatic music", often ended his Kannada language compositions with a salutation to Vitthala.[71][72]
Pushtimarg sect
The founder of the Hindu sect
One of the sect's Nidhi Swaroops is Vitthalnathji with his consort Yamunaji.Festivals
The festivals associated with Vithoba primarily correspond to the bi-annual
More than 800,000
Apart from the four Ekadashis, a fair is held on
Devotional works
Devotional works dedicated to Vithoba can be categorised into the Varkari tradition, the Brahmin tradition and what Raeside calls a "third tradition", that includes both Varkari and Brahmin elements. The Varkari texts are written in Marathi, the Brahmin texts in Sanskrit, and the "third tradition" are Marathi texts written by Brahmins.
The Varkari texts are: Bhaktalilamrita and Bhaktavijaya by Mahipati, Pundalika-Mahatmya by Bahinabai, and a long abhanga by Namdev. All these texts describe the legend of Pundalik. The Brahmin texts include: two versions of Panduranga-Mahatmya from the Skanda Purana (consisting of 900 verses); Panduranga-Mahatmya from the Padma Purana (consisting of 1,200 verses); Bhima-Mahatmya, also from the Padma Purana; and a third devotional work, yet again called Panduranga-Mahatmya, which is found in the Vishnu Purana.[80][81][82] The "third tradition" is found in two works: Panduranga-Mahatmya by the Brahmin Sridhara (consisting of 750 verses), and another work of the same name written by Prahlada Maharaj (consisting of 181 verses).[83][84]
In addition to the above, there are many abhangas, the short
Temples
There are many Vithoba temples in Maharashtra,.
Several temples are found in Goa, the well-known ones being the temples at Sanquelim, Sanguem and Gokarna Math. Similarly temple festivals celebrated in Vitthala temples in Margao,[91] Ponda attract a lot a pilgrims. Vitthal is also worshipped as Vitthalnath at the Nathdwara in Rajasthan.[73]
Vithoba was introduced to South India during the Vijayanagara and Maratha rule.
Legend
Legends regarding Vithoba usually focus on his devotee Pundalik or on Vithoba's role as a savior to the poet-saints of the Varkari faith. As discussed in the devotional works section above, the Pundalik legend appears in the Sanskrit scriptures Skanda Purana and Padma Purana. It is also documented in Marathi texts: Panduranga-Mahatmya by a Brahmin called Sridhara; another work of the same name written by Prahlada Maharaj; and also in the abhangas of various poet-saints.
There are three versions of the Pundalik legend, two of which are attested as textual variants of the Skanda Purana (1.34–67). According to the first, the ascetic Pundarika (Pundalik) is described as a devotee of god Vishnu and dedicated to the service of his parents. The god
The second version of the legend depicts Vithoba appearing before Pundalik as the five-year-old Bala Krishna (infant Krishna). This version is found in manuscripts of both Puranas, Prahlada Maharaj, and the poet-saints, notably Tukaram.[101] The remaining version of the Pundalik legend appears in Sridhara and as a variant in the Padma Purana. Pundalik, a Brahmin madly in love with his wife, neglected his aged parents as a result. Later, on meeting sage Kukkuta, Pundalik underwent a transformation and devoted his life to the service of his aged parents. Meanwhile, Radha, the milkmaid-lover of Krishna, came to Dvaraka, the kingdom of Krishna, and sat on his lap. Radha did not honour Rukmini, the chief queen of Krishna, nor did Krishna hold Radha accountable for the offence. Offended, Rukmini left Krishna and went to the forest of Dandivana near Pandharpur. Saddened by Rukmini's departure, Krishna searched for his queen and finally found her resting in Dandivana, near Pundalik's house. After some coaxing, Rukmini was pacified. Then Krishna visited Pundalik and found him serving his parents. Pundalik threw a brick outside for Krishna to rest on. Krishna stood on the brick and waited for Pundalik. After completing his services, Pundalik asked that Krishna, in the Vithoba form, remain on the brick with Rukmini, in her Rakhumai form, and bless his devotees forever.[13][31][84][99]
Other legends describe Vithoba coming to the rescue of his devotees in the form of a commoner, an outcast Mahar "untouchable" or a Brahmin beggar.[102] Mahipati, in his work Pandurangastrotra, narrates how Vithoba helped female saints like Janabai in their daily chores, such as sweeping the house and pounding the rice.[103] He narrates how Vithoba came to the aid of Sena the barber. The king of Bidar had ordered Sena to be arrested for not coming to the palace despite royal orders. As Sena was engrossed in his prayers to Vithoba, Vithoba went to the palace in the form of Sena to serve the king, and Sena was saved.[104] Another tale deals with a saint, Damaji, the keeper of the royal grain store, who distributed grain to the people in famine. Vithoba came as an outcaste with a bag of gold to pay for the grain.[105] Yet another story narrates how Vithoba resurrected the child of Gora Kumbhar (potter), who had been trampled into the clay by Gora while singing the name of Vithoba.[106]
Notes
- ^ Zelliot and Berntsen (1988) p. xviii "Varkari cult is rural and non-Brahman in character"
- ^ Sand (1990), p. 33 "According to Raeside the Varkari tradition is essentially monotheistic and without ritual, and, for this tradition, Vithoba represents Hari Krsna, while for the badavas or hereditary priests "Vithoba is neither Visnu nor Siva. Vithoba is Vithoba (...)"; p. 34 "the more or less anti-ritualistic and anti-brahmanical attitudes of Varkari sampradaya."
- ^ Novetzke (2005) pp. 115–16
- ^ a b c d e Crooke (2003) pp. 607–08
- ^ Pande (2008) p. 449
- ^ a b c Bhandarkar (1995) p. 124
- ^ Tagare in Mahipati: Abbott, Godbole (1988) p. xxxvi
- ^ a b Sand (1990) p. 38
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Pathak, Arunchandra S. (2006). "Pandharpur". The Gazetteers Dept, Government of Maharashtra (first published: 1977). Archived from the original on March 30, 2010. Retrieved 2008-07-14.
- ^ a b Bhandarkar (1995) p. 125
- ^ a b c d Eaton (2005) pp. 139–40
- ^ Zelliot (1988) p. 170
- ^ a b c Pande (2008) p. 508
- ^ For Bir Kuar, Tagare in Mahipati: Abbott, Godbole (1988) p. xxxiv
- ^ a b Novetzke (2005) p. 116
- ^ Dhere p. 62
- ^ Sand (1990) p. 40
- ^ a b Kelkar (2001) p. 4179
- ^ a b Vaudeville (1987) pp. 223–24
- ^ Deleury as quoted in Sand (1990) p. 38
- ^ Tilak (2006) pp. 243–46
- ^ Stevenson (1843) pp. 5–6 "The want of suitable costume in the images (of Vithoba and Rakhumai) as originally carved, in this agreeing exactly with images the Jains at present worship."
- ^ a b Karve (1968) pp. 188–89
- ^ a b Zelliot, Eleanor in Mokashi (1987) p. 35
- ^ Shima (1988) p. 184
- ^ Gokhale (1985) pp. 42–52
- ^ Ranade (1933) p. 183
- ^ Pande (2008) pp. 449, 508
- ^ Sand (1990) pp. 43, 58
- ^ Sand (1990) p. 35
- ^ a b Bhandarkar (1995) pp. 125–26
- ^ Stevenson (1843) p. 66
- ^ a b Sand (1990) p. 37
- ^ Ranade (1933) pp. 183–84
- ^ Sand (1990) pp. 39–40
- ^ Williams, Monier. mw1276-svadharman (2008 ed.). p. 1276.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ Zelliot, Eleanor in Mokashi (1987) p. 37
- ^ Novetzke p. 117
- ^ Zelliot (1988) p. 114
- ^ a b Underhill (1991) p. 171
- ^ a b Raeside, I. M. P. (1965) p. 82. Cited in Sand (1990) p. 33
- ^ Pathak, Arunchandra S. (2006). "Junnar". The Gazetteers Dept, Government of Maharashtra (first published: 1885). Archived from the original on 16 October 2009. Retrieved 2008-11-03.
- ^ Stevenson (1843) p. 64
- ^ Tagare in Mahipati: Abbott, Godbole (1988) p. xxxiv
- ^ Keer (2005) p. 482
- ^ a b c Pande (2008) p. 448
- ^ Zelliot, Eleanor in Mokashi (1987) pp. 35–36
- ^ Ranade (1933) p. 41
- ^ a b Dhere, R C (2009). "Chapter 6: In search of the original idol of Viththal". Shri Viththal ek mahasamanvaya (official site of author). Retrieved 20 July 2010.
- ^ a b Monier-Williams (2008). "Cologne Scan". sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de. p. 1110.
- ^ a b Pillai (1997) pp. 366–67
- ^ Pande (2008) p. 447
- ^ Karve (1968) p. 183
- ^ Tagare in Mahipati: Abbott, Godbole (1987) p. xxxv
- ^ a b Engblom, Philip C. in Mokashi (1987) pp. 7–10, 15
- ^ a b Shima (1988) p. 188
- ^ Flood (1996) p. 135
- ^ a b anon. (1987) pp. 966–68
- ^ Zelliot, Eleanor in Mokashi (1990) p. 38
- ^ Pawar p. 350
- ^ Shima (1988) pp. 184–86
- ^ Flood (1996) pp. 142–44
- ^ Zelliot, Eleanor in Mokashi (1987) p. 40
- ^ see Pawar pp. 350–62 for a review of Varkari literature
- ^ Tagare in Mahipati: Abbott, Godbole (1988) p. xxxvii
- ^ Flood (2003) pp. 252–53
- ^ Sharma (2000) pp. 514–16
- ^ Lutgendorf (2007) pp. 69, 70, 72
- ^ Rao (1966) pp. 7–8
- ^ Rao (1966) p. 28
- ^ Iyer (2006) p. 93
- ^ Kiehnle (1997) p. 39
- ^ a b "The Artists of Nathadwar — Part 4". The Sampradaya Sun. May 29, 2005. Retrieved 2009-07-03.
- ISBN 978-0-7007-1233-5.
- ^ "Vithalnath". Nathdwara Temple Board. Retrieved 27 October 2014.
- CNN IBN. Archived from the originalon October 16, 2012. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
- day.
- ^ Engblom, Philip C. in Mokashi (1987) p. 2
- ^ Shima (1988) p. 189
- ^ a b Sand (1990) p. 56
- ^ Sand (1990) p. 33
- ^ For the complete English translation of Bhaktavijaya, which narrates the legend of Pundalik and also tells stories of reported interactions between the saints and Vithoba, see Stories of Indian Saints (1988) by Mahīpati, Justin Edwards Abbott, and Narhar R. Godbole.
- ^ Sand (1990) p. 34
- ^ a b For a complete Marathi text and English translation of Panduranga-Mahatmya by Sridhara see Raeside (1965) pp. 81–100
- ^ Novetzke (2005) p. 120
- ^ Singh (2004) p. 13
- ^ Shima (1988) pp. 189–96
- ^ Pande (2008) pp. 445–48
- ^ Underhill (1991) pp. 165–66, 172
- ^ Pathak, Arunchandra S. (2006). "Kole". The Gazetteers Dept, Government of Maharashtra (first published: 1963). Archived from the original on 20 June 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-02.
- ISBN 978-1-900949-45-3.
- ^ a b T. Padmaja (2002) pp. 92, 108, 121–22, fig 87
- ^ a b Eleanor Zelliot in Mokashi (1987) p. 42
- ^ a b Ranade (1933) p. 213
- ^ Eaton (2005) p. 83
- ^ Sharma (2000) p. 612
- ^ Rao (2002) pp. 54–55
- ^ M R Venkatesh (10 July 2011). "New abode for Vittala in TN". Retrieved 10 July 2011.
- ^ a b Sand (1990) pp. 41–42
- ^ Bakker (1990) p. 78
- ^ Sand (1990) p. 50
- ^ Eleanor Zelliot in Mokashi (1987) p. 35
- ^ Tilak (2006) p. 247
- ^ For complete tale, see Mahipati pp. 22–27
- ^ For complete story, see Mahipati pp. 85–99
- ^ For the complete legend, see Mahipati pp. 286–289
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Further reading
- Deleury, G. A. (1960). The cult of Vithoba (Pune: Deccan College, Postgraduate and Research Institute (Original from the University of Michigan) ed.). Magis Books.
- Dhond, M. V.(2001). Aisa vitevara deva kothe! (in Marathi). Rajhans Prakashan.
- Tulpule, S. G. (1979). Classical Marathi Literature: A History of Indian Literature. Vol. 9. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
External links
- Official site of Shri Vitthal Rukmini Temple, Pandharpur
- Video of the Pandharpur Vithoba's "Maha-puja" (worship), Maharashtra Times
- Article on the Pandharpur temple
- The Haridasa movement Archived 2009-02-18 at the Wayback Machine
- Sane, Prajkta (March 2007). "The 'Palkhi' of Alandi to Pandharpur" (PDF). University of New South Wales. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-27.
- A summary of Viththal ek mahasamanvaya by R C Dhere on author's website
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