Gaudiya Vaishnavism

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Gaudiya Vaishnavism
Caitanya Mahaprabhu and Nityananda prabhu at ISKCON Temple, Pune
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Closeup of Vishnu, seated in the lotus position on a lotus. From depiction of the poet Jayadeva bowing to Vishnu, Gouache on paper Pahari, The very picture of devotion, bare-bodied, head bowed, legs crossed and hands folded, Jayadeva stands at left, with the implements of worship placed before the lotus-seat of Vishnu who sits there, blessing the poet.
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Gaudiya Vaishnavism (

Rajshahi district of Bangladesh), with Vaishnavism meaning "the worship of Vishnu". Specifically, it is part of Krishnaism—Krishna-centric Vaishnavite traditions.[15]

Its theological basis is primarily that of the Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata Purana (known within the tradition as the Srimad Bhagavatam), as interpreted by early followers of Chaitanya, such as Sanatana Goswami, Rupa Goswami, Jiva Goswami, Gopala Bhatta Goswami and others.[16][17]

The focus of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is the devotional worship (known as bhakti yoga) of Radha and Krishna, and their many divine incarnations as the supreme forms of God, Svayam Bhagavan. Most popularly, this worship takes the form of singing Radha and Krishna's holy names, such as "Hare", "Krishna" and "Rama", most commonly in the form of the Hare Krishna (mantra), also known as kirtan and dancing along with it.

Gaudiya Vaishnavism is the spiritual and philosophical foundation of the well-known International Society for Krishna Consciousness, a.k.a. the "Hare Krishna Movement".[18][19]

Philosophical concepts

Living beings

According to Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy,

samsara found in Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist beliefs.[23] [24]

Release from the process of samsara (known as

yuga, which is Kali Yuga, singing and chanting the various sacred names of God (Krishna) are sufficient for spiritual liberation.[26]

Supreme Person (God)

See also: Svayam Bhagavan

One of the defining aspects of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is that Krishna is worshiped specifically as the source of all avataric incarnations of God. This is based on quotations from the Bhagavata Purana, such as "krsnastu bhagavan svayam", literally "Krishna is God Himself".[26] Jiva Gosvami calls this phrase the "paribhasha-sutra" (definitive rule) of the theology of the Gaudiya Vaishnava school and a mahavakya (governing proposition).[27]: 381 

Inconceivable oneness and difference

Main article: Achintya Bheda Abheda

A particularly distinct part of the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy espoused by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is the concept of Achintya Bheda Abheda, which translates to "inconceivable oneness and difference" in the context of the soul's relationship with Krishna,[28][29][30][note 2] and also Krishna's relationship with his other energies (i.e. the material world).[32]

In quality, the soul (jiva) is described as being identical to God, but in terms of quantity, individual jivas are said to be infinitesimal in comparison to the unlimited Supreme Being. The exact nature of this relationship (being simultaneously one and different with Krishna) is inconceivable to the human mind but can be experienced through the process of Bhakti yoga.

This philosophy serves as a meeting of two opposing schools of

Dvaita
Vedanta.

Sat Sandarbhas

Jiva Goswami wrote Sat Sandarbhas as an analysis of Bhagvata Purana to elaborate the philosophy of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. The six treatises are:[27]: 376–384 

  • Tattva: defines the absolute reality, dealing with epistemology and ontology. Establishes the Bhagavata Purana as the supreme pramana
  • Bhagavat: elaborates on the nature of Bhagavan, the complete manifestation amongst the three aspects of absolute reality mentioned in Bhagavata Purana 1.2.11
  • Paramatma: describes Paramatma as a partial manifestation of Bhagavan
  • Krishna: argues that Krishna is supreme
  • Bhakti: describes the process of attaining love for Krishna, bhakti or devotion
  • Priti: argues that priti (love) for Bhagavan is the highest goal (prayojana) of life

Devotional activities

Bhakti Yoga

Main article:
Bhakti Yoga

The practical process of performing devotional acts in ones life is described as bhakti or bhakti-yoga, and is supported by activities of nine different types.[33][34] The two distinct divisions of sadhana-bhakti are vaidhi-bhakti and raganuga-bhakti.[35][36] Rupa Goswami defines vaidhi-bhakti as that bhakti which is taken up not by natural liking but by consideration of scriptural injunctions.[37][38] He describes the two categories of the highest bhakti as bhava-bhakti (devotion via feelings of intense emotion) and prema-bhakti (devotion of love). The two are essentially different intensities of the same participation in devotion via emotional expression.[39] Raganuga-bhakti, on the other hand, follows ragatmika-bhakti,[40] [41] the bhakti present in Krishna's eternal associates, which is driven by raga, a natural absorption in the object of service.[42] [43] Jiva Goswami's conclusion in Bhakti Sandarbha is that raganuga-bhakti is the only abhidheya, viable process, recommended by the Bhagavatam.[27]

Within his

Siksastaka prayers, Chaitanya compares the process of bhakti-yoga to that of cleansing a dirty place of dust, wherein our consciousness is the object in need of purification.[44] This purification takes place largely through the chanting and singing of Radha and Krishna's names. Specifically, the Hare Krishna (mantra) is chanted and sung by practitioners on a daily basis, sometimes for many hours each day.[45] Famously within the tradition, one of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's close associates, Haridasa Thakur, is reported to have chanted 300,000 holy names of God each day.[46]

Diet and lifestyle

Gaudiya Vaishnavas follow a vegetarian diet, abstaining from all types of animal flesh, fish and eggs.[47] [48] [49] Onion and garlic are also avoided as they are believed to promote a tamasic and rajasic form of consciousness in the eater.[50] Some Gaudiya Vaishnavas, mainly from ISKCON and Gaudiya Matha, also avoid the intake of caffeine, as they believe it is addictive and an intoxicant.[51]

Attitude toward scriptures

Chaitanya Vaishnava traditions refer to the writings of previous

scriptures philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally,[53] Chaitanya Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (mukhya vṛitti) as primary and indirect meaning (gauṇa vṛitti) as secondary: sākṣhād upadesas tu shrutih - "The instructions of the shruti-shāstra should be accepted literally, without fanciful or allegorical interpretations."[52][54]

Sampradaya and parampara

A Guru—shishya tradition ("lineage" or parampara) denotes a succession of teachers and disciples within some

Madhva Sampradaya.[55] The Gaudiya Vaishnavas call their tradition "Brahma-Madhva-Gaudiya Sampradaya", which originates from Brahma and has Madhvacharya as the original acharya and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu as the acharya-successor.[56]

However, this traditional point is at least debatable. Some modern scholars and confessional authors critically assess and pair the Gaudiya Vaishnavism's affiliation with the

Dashanami order.[60]

The Prameya Ratnawali of the above-mentioned gaudiya-acharya Baladeva Vidyabhushana contains the following canonical list of disciplic succession: Krishna, Brahma, Narada, Vyasa, Madhva, Padmanabha, Nrihari, Madhava, Akshobhya, Jayatirtha, Gyanasindhu, Dayanidhi, Vidyanidhi, Rajendra, Jayadharma, Purushottama, Brahmanya, Vyasatirtha, Lakshmipati Tirtha, Madhavendra Puri, Isvara Puri, and Chaitanya. [61]

One feature of the Gaudiya succession of spiritual masters should be considered. Chaitanya refused to formally initiate anyone as a disciple, only inspiring and guiding his followers. Chaitanya neither founded the community nor named a successor. That is why, from the very beginning, the sampradaya was divided into several lines of succession that were practically not connected with each other and that still exist today.[62] One of them, namely, the Gaudiya-Sarasvata Sampradaya, belongs to the well known International Society for Krishna Consciousness.[63]

History

ISKCON temple, Mayapur

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu

Gaudiya Vaishnavas, revere him as a Krishna with the mood and complexion of his source of inspiration Radha.[68]

Early growth

Over the three centuries following the disappearance of

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition evolved into the form in which we largely find it today in contemporary India. In the early years of the tradition, the followers of Nityananda Prabhu, Advaita Acharya and other companions of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu educated and initiated people, each in their own locales across Bengal
.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu requested a select few among his followers, who later came to be known as the

Orissa
.

The festival of Kheturi (approx 1574),

Vaishnava theology
.

17th–18th century

Srivasa
, installed in a Gaudiya Vaishnava temple

During the 17th–18th centuries, there was a period of general decline in the movement's strength and popularity, its "lethargic state", characterized by decreased public preaching and the rise of persons following and promoting tantric teachings and practices.[70][71] These groups are called apasampradayas by the Chaitanyaits.[72]

In the 17th century,

Baladeva Vidyabhushan wrote a famous commentary on the Vedanta-sutra called Govinda Bhashya
.

The 18th century saw a number of luminaries headed by Siddha Jayakrishna Das Babaji of Kamyavan and Siddha Krishnadas Babaji of

Govardhan. The latter, a widely renowned teacher of the mode of internal worship (raga-bhajan) practiced in the tradition, is largely responsible for the current form of devotional practice embraced by some of the traditions based in Vrindavan
.

Manipuri Vaishnavism

Main article: Manipuri Vaishnavism

The "Manipuri Vaishnavism" is a regional form of Gaudiya Vaishnavism with a culture-forming role among the

Gharib Nawaz (Pamheiba) was initiated into the Chaitanya tradition. Most devotee ruler and propagandist of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, under the influence of Natottama Thakura's disciples, was raja Bhagyachandra, who has visited the holy for the Chaytanyaits Nabadwip.[74] Rasa Lila dance became a feature of the regional folk and religious tradition.[74]

20th century

A white ornate structure with a pyramidal pointed dome standing on the bank of a pond and surrounded by trees
Yogapith temple at Chaitanya's birthsite in Mayapur established in 1880s by Bhaktivinoda Thakur, presently caretaken by the Sri Chaitanya Math.
Sri Gaudiya Math (Kolkata, estd. 1930) is the formed headquarters of Gaudiya Math, now headquarter of Gaudiya Mission.
See also: Gaudiya Math

From the very beginning of Chaitanya's bhakti movement in Bengal,

Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakur in his Gaudiya Math in the 20th century.[75]

A renaissance began at the start of the 20th century both in India and the West. One pioneer of the Gaudiya Vaishnavite mission in the West was Baba Premananda Bharati (1858–1914),

ISKCON mission.[79] His followers formed several organizations including the now defunct Order of Living Service and the AUM Temple of Universal Truth.[79]

The reform change of traditional caste Gaudiya Vaishnavism of 19th century is believed to have happened largely in India due to the efforts of a particularly adept preacher known as Bhaktivinoda Thakur, who also held the position of a deputy magistrate with the British government. Bhaktivinoda Thakur's son grew up to be both an eminent scholar and a highly influential Vaishnava preacher, and was later known as Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati. In 1920, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati founded Gaudiya Math in India, and later sixty-four Gaudiya Matha monasteries in India, Burma and Europe. In 1933, the first European preaching center was established in London (London Glouster House, Cornwall Garden, W7 South Kensington) under the name "Gaudiya Mission Society of London".[81][82]

Soon after Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati's death (1 January 1937), a dispute began, which divided the original Gaudiya Math mission into two administrative bodies still in existence today. In a settlement, they divided the sixty-four Gaudiya Math centers into two groups: the Sri Chaitanya Math headed by Bhakti Vilasa Tirtha Maharaj and the Gaudiya Mission headed by Ananta Vasudev (Bhakti Prasad Puri Maharaj).[63][83]

Many of Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati's disciples disagreed with the spirit of these two factions and/or started their own missions to expand their guru's mission.[84] In the 1960s, the one of his disciples, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada went to the West to spread Gaudiya-Vaishnavism and establish the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), "the most successful of the Gaudiya Math's offspring," an organization that continues today.[85]

However, despite the active missionary work of the reformed Gaudiya Math and its followers, most of the Gaudiya Vaishnava community in India remained under the influence of hereditary

Radha Raman Temple in Vrindavan and its prominent scholar-acharya Shrivatsa Goswami.[86]

Gaudiya and other Vaishnava schools

Although sharing a common set of core beliefs, there are a number of philosophical differences which distinguish Gaudiya Vaishnavism from other Vaishnava schools:

  • In Gaudiya Vaishnavism,
    Madhva schools, who view Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu
    .
  • As Krishna's consort, Radha is similarly viewed as the source of all other Shaktis, including Lakshmi and Sita.
  • Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is worshiped as the most recent i.e. ninth vatar of Krishna to descend in the current yuga, or age. Other sampradayas view Chaitanya as a devotee of Krishna only, and not Krishna himself or a form of avatar.[citation needed] According to his biographies, Chaitanya did not display himself as Krishna in public,[dubious – discuss] and would, in fact, avoid being addressed as such. In this regard A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami states, "[When] addressed as Lord Krishna, He denied it. Indeed, He sometimes placed His hands over His ears, protesting that one should not be addressed as the Supreme Lord".[88] However at times Chaitanya would exhibit a different mood and would welcome worship of himself as the Supreme Lord, and at a few occasions, is said to have exhibited his Universal form. Rupa Goswami, when first meeting with Chaitanya, composed the following verse showing his belief in Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's divinity:

"O most munificent incarnation! You are Krishna Himself appearing as Sri Krishna Caitanya Mahaprabhu. You have assumed the golden colour of Srimati Radharani, and You are widely distributing pure love of Krishna. We offer our respectful obeisances unto You."[89]

Although this viewpoint outside of the Gaudiya tradition was disputed, Chaitanya's followers prove it by pointing at verses throughout the Puranic literatures as evidence to support this claim.[90][91] Evidences such as the Krishna-varnam verse SB 11.5.32 have many interpretations by scholars, including Sridhara Svami who is accepted as authority by Mahaprabhu himself.[92]

Theological sources

Gaudiya Vaishnava theology is prominently expounded by

Sanatana Gosvami, the author of Hari-bhakti-vilasa,[94] Visvanatha Chakravarti, the author of Sri Camatkara-candrika[95] and Baladeva Vidyabhushana, author of Govinda Bhashya
.

Jiva Gosvami frequently references Sridhara Swami, particularly quoting from Sridhara Swami's commentary on the Bhagavata Purana (Bhavartha-dipika), throughout the Sat-sandarbhas.[96] In the Catuhsutri section of the Paramatma-sandarbha, Jiva Gosvami references Ramanuja's commentary on Brahma Sutras.[97]

Modern Gaudiya Vaishnava societies

The strictly centralized form of church-type organization and the idea that one has to be an unconventional (uttama) spiritual master introduced by the reformer Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati and his Gaudiya Math were not characteristic of the traditional Gaudiya Vaishnavism with its hereditary brahmins-goswamis and family teachers (kula gurus). Much of the Gaudiya Vaishnava community in India remained committed to the unreformed and loosely organized tradition.[98] Many modern organisations are independent branches of the tree of the Gaudiya Math.[84]

Gaudiya Math and offshoots
Traditional Gaudiya societies

Many of branches of the Gaudiya Math (not all) are members of the World Vaisnava Association — Visva Vaisnava Raj Sabha (WVA–VVRS), which had been established in 1994 by some Gaudiya leaders.[84][107] But after this establishment, there is little real cooperation among Gaudiya organisations.[84]

Demography

There are adherents of Gaudiya Vaishnavism in all strata of Indian society, but a tendency has been revealed, Bengali Vaishnavas belong to the lower middle castes ("middle class"), while the upper castes as well as lowest castes and tribes in Bengal are

Shaktas.[4]

Offshoots of Gaudiya Vaishnavism

There are Krishnaite gurus and groups who belong to the Chaitanya lineage, but actually separated from Gaudiya Vaishnavism, becoming new independent movements.

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ Other names include Bengali Vaishnavism,[5][6][7][4][8] the Bengali, Chaitanya or Gaudiya Sampradaya,[9][10] Chaitanyaism,[11] and Gaura Dharma.[13]
  2. ^ "It is the living entity's constitutional position to be an eternal servant of Krishna because he is the marginal energy of Krishna and a manifestation simultaneously one with and different from the Lord, like a molecular particle of sunshine or fire."[31]

Footnotes

  1. ^ De 1942, p. 7.
  2. ^ Sinha 2001.
  3. ^ De 1942, Preface.
  4. ^ a b c McDermott 2005, p. 826.
  5. Mahanam Sampraday, and others – but Gaudiya Vaishnavism is described as "the most characteristic form of Vaishnavism in Bengal" and is called Bengali Vaishnavism.[3][4]
  6. ^ De 1942, pp. 1–2, 9–12.
  7. ^ Bryant & Ekstrand 2004, p. 80.
  8. ^ Carney 2020.
  9. ^ De 1942, pp. 10 note 1, 17.
  10. ^ Rosen 1992, p. 127.
  11. ^ De 1942, pp. 1, 7–8, and Preface.
  12. ^ Singh 2004, p. 131 note 4.
  13. ^ "Gaura or Gauranga is an epithet of Chaitanya and hence Chaitanyaite Vaishnavism is also known as Gaura Dharma, 'religion of Gaura'."[12]
  14. ^ Sen 1922; Kennedy 1925; De 1942.
  15. ^ Hardy 1987, pp. 387–392.
  16. ^ Bryant 2017, p. 650.
  17. ^ Holdrege 2017.
  18. ^ Kapoor 1977, Front matter.
  19. ^ Gelberg 1983, Front matter.
  20. ^ Consciousness the Symptom of the Soul by Stephen Knapp
  21. ^ "Bhagavad Gita 2.20". Vedabase.io. Retrieved 2 November 2020.
  22. ^ Hutchinson, Janis-Faye (2009). "Karma, reincarnation, and medicine: Hindu perspectives on biomedical research". Dordrecht: Springer Nature B.V: 110.
  23. ISBN 0-8239-3180-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link
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  24. ISBN 0-8239-3180-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: location (link
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  25. ISBN 0-8239-3180-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link
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  26. ^
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  27. ^
    OCLC 181731713
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  28. ^ Vidyavinoda 1951.
  29. ^ Kapoor 1977.
  30. ^ Rosen 1992, pp. 249–260.
  31. ^ Caitanya-Caritamrita Ml 20.108–109 Archived 11 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  32. ^ "B-Gita 7.8". Vedabase.net. Archived from the original on 19 July 2013. Retrieved 17 June 2013.
  33. ISBN 0-8239-3180-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: location (link
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  34. ^ Bryant 2017, p. 9.
  35. ^ vaidhī rāgānugā ceti sā dvidhā sādhanābhidhā 1.2.5, Gosvāmī, Śrīla Rūpa. Bhakti Rasāmṛta Sindhu. The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  36. ISBN 978-0-19-514891-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: location (link
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  37. ^ tatra vaidhī — yatra rāgānavāptatvāt pravṛttir upajāyate । śāsanenaiva śāstrasya sā vaidhī bhaktir ucyate ॥1.2.6 ॥ Gosvāmī, Śrīla Rūpa. Bhakti Rasāmṛta Sindhu. The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
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  39. ^ Herbert, Alan (June 2022). "Ritual and Rasa: a Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Recasting of the Role of Ritual Imagination". Journal of Dharma Studies. 5: 123 – via Springer International Publishing.
  40. ^ tan-mayī yā bhaved bhaktiḥ sātra rāgātmikoditā, 1.2.272, Gosvāmī, Śrīla Rūpa. Bhakti Rasāmṛta Sindhu. The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  41. ISBN 978-0-19-514891-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: location (link
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  42. ^ iṣṭe svārasikī rāgaḥ 1.2.272, Gosvāmī, Śrīla Rūpa. Bhakti Rasāmṛta Sindhu. The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  43. ^ Wulff, Donna (2001). "Acting as a Way of Salvation: A Study of Rāgānugā Bhakti Sādhana". American Oriental Society. 121: 523 – via JSTOR.
  44. ^ "Teachings of Lord Caitanya - Sikshashtakam". Iskconvrindavan.com. Retrieved 2 November 2020.
  45. ^ Bryant & Ekstrand 2004, pp. 35–44.
  46. ^ Caitanya Caritamrita 1.10.43, 3.3.100, 3.3.176, 3.4.101, 3.7.48
  47. ISBN 0-631-21535-2
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  48. ^ Nath, Jemal (2010). "God is a vegetarian: The food, health and bio-spirituality of Hare Krishna, Buddhist and Seventh-Day Adventist devotees". Health sociology review. 19 (3).
  49. ^ King, Anna (2012). "Krishna's Cows: ISKCON's Animal Theology and Practice". Journal of Animal Ethics. 2 – via JSTOR.
  50. ^ Chandrakant Sheth, Hitesh (2021). "Bhagvad Gita, gut microbiota, and mental health". Wolters Kluwer Medknow Publications: 22–30.
  51. ISBN 978-1857437591
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  52. ^ a b Gupta 2007, p. [page needed].
  53. ^ Menon, Sangeetha. "Advaita Vedanta". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  54. ^ Jiva Goswami, Kṛiṣhna Sandarbha 29.26-27
  55. ^ https://gaudiya.com/pdf/Is_the_Gaudiya_Vaishnava_sampradaya_connected_to_the_Madhva_line.pdf Connection between Gaudiya and Madhva Sampradayas (pdf)
  56. ^ Kapoor 1977, p. 46.
  57. ^ De 1942, pp. 10–20.
  58. ^ Vidyavinoda 1951, pp. 207–213, 240–241.
  59. ^ a b Beck 2005, pp. 74–75.
  60. ^ Bryant & Ekstrand 2004, p. 77.
  61. ^ https://www.indiadivine.org/prameya-ratnavali-of-baladeva-vidyabhushana/ Prameya Ratnavali of Baladeva Vidyabhushana (Text 7)
  62. ^ Stewart 2010.
  63. ^ a b c d e Bryant & Ekstrand 2004, p. 131.
  64. ^ "Chaitanya Mahaprabhu | Gaudiya History". Archived from the original on 18 October 2014. Retrieved 11 April 2016.
  65. ^ Connection between Gaudiya and Madhva Sampradayas(pdf)
  66. ^ Srimad Bhagavatam (Introduction) "Lord Caitanya not only preached the Srimad-Bhagavatam but propagated the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita as well in the most practical way."
  67. Yuga-dharma as the practice for attainment of pure love for Radha-Krishna
    . That process is Harinam-Sankirtan, or the congregational chanting of the Holy Names of Krishna "Hare Krishna Hare Krishna Krishna Krishna Hare Hare, Hare Rama Hare Rama Rama Rama Hare Hare"
  68. ISBN 978-0814797211
    , pp. 77–79
  69. ^ Women Saints in Gaudiya Vaishnavism "The event at which this took place was the famous Kheturi festival already mentioned above, the date of which is still a matter of conjecture, but likely took place in the 1570s."
  70. ^ Kennedy 1925, pp. 77–78.
  71. ^ śuna haridāsa ei līlā saṃgopane viśva andhakāra karibeka duṣṭa jane, Harinama Cintamani 15.108
  72. ^ Source: https://archive.org/details/Apasampradayas (accessed: Friday September 22, 2023)
  73. ^ Singh 2004, pp. 125–132.
  74. ^ a b Singh 2004, p. 128.
  75. ^ Bryant & Ekstrand 2004, p. 139.
  76. ^ Carney 2020, pp. 135–136.
  77. ^ Carney 2020, p. 140.
  78. ^ Carney 2020, p. 152.
  79. ^ a b c Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 79–80, Baba Premanand Bharati.
  80. ^ Carney 2020, pp. 140–143.
  81. ^ Bryant & Ekstrand 2004, p. 130.
  82. ^ Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 165, Gaudiya Math.
  83. ^ "The Sons of the Son: The Breakup of the Gaudiya Matha" (PDF). Retrieved 2 October 2020.
  84. ^ a b c d Bryant & Ekstrand 2004, p. 90.
  85. ^ Bryant & Ekstrand 2004, p. 91.
  86. ^ Case 2000.
  87. ^ "Bhagavata Purana 1.3.28". vedabase.io. Retrieved 2 November 2020.
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  90. ^ Bhagavata Purana 11.5.32 Archived 8 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine "In the age of Kali, intelligent persons perform congregational chanting to worship the incarnation of Godhead who constantly sings the names of Krishna. Although His complexion is not blackish, He is Krishna Himself. He is accompanied by His associates, servants, weapons and confidential companions."
  91. ^ "Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu predicted". Veda.harekrsna.cz. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 17 June 2013.
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Bibliography


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