Candi of Indonesia
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A candi (pronounced
The
In Hindu Balinese architecture, the term candi refers to a stone or brick structure of single-celled shrine with portico, entrance and stairs, topped with pyramidal roof and located within a pura. It is often modeled after East Javanese temples, and functions as a shrine to a certain deity. To the Balinese, a candi is not necessarily ancient, since candis continue to be (re-)built within these puras, such as the reconstructed temple in Alas Purwo, Banyuwangi.[4]
In contemporary
In modern
Terminology
Candi refers to a structure based on the Indian type of single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal tower above it, and a portico.[7] The term Candi is given as a prefix to the many temple-mountains in Indonesia, built as a representation of the Cosmic Mount Meru, an epitome of the universe. However, the term also applied to many non-religious structures dated from the same period, such as gapura (gates), petirtaan (pools) and some of habitation complexes. Examples of non-temple candis are the Bajang Ratu and Wringin Lawang gates of Majapahit. The "Candi Tikus bathing pool" in Trowulan and Jalatunda in Mount Penanggungan slopes, as well as the remnants of non-religious habitation and urban structures such as Ratu Boko and some of Trowulan city ruins, are also considered candi.
In ancient
Etymology
"Between circa the 7th and 15th centuries, hundred of religious structures were constructed of brick and stone in Java, Sumatra and Bali. These are called candi. The term refers to other pre-Islamic structures including gateways and even bathing places, but its principal manifestation is the religious shrine."
From
Another theory from
Historians suggest that the temples of ancient
Architecture
The candi architecture follows the typical
Structure elements
The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, spanned from the less holy to the holiest realms. The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognize the concept of arranging elements in three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of the temple follows the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body (center), and head (roof). The three zones is arranged according to a sacred hierarchy. Each Hindu and Buddhist concepts has their own terms, but the concept's essentials is identical. Either the compound site plan (horizontally) or the temple structure (vertically) consists of three zones:[13]
- Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans, animals also demons. Where humans still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of life. The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm of bhurloka.
- Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, rishis, ascetics, and lesser gods. People here began to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and the body of each temples is symbolized the realm of bhuvarloka.
- Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm of gods, also known as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temples is symbolized the realm of svarloka. The roof of Hindu structure usually crowned with ratna (Sanskrit: jewel) or vajra, or in eastern Java period, crowned by cube structure. While stupaor dagoba cylindrical structure served as the pinnacle of Buddhist ones.
Style
Parts of the temple | Central Java Style | Eastern Java Style |
---|---|---|
Shape of the structure | Tends to be bulky | Tends to be slender and tall |
Roof | Clearly shows stepped roof sections, usually consist of three parts | The multiple parts of stepped sections formed a combined roof structure smoothly |
Pinnacle | Stupa (Buddhist temples), Ratna or Vajra (Hindu temples) | Cube (mostly Hindu temples), sometimes Dagoba cylindrical structures (Buddhist temples) |
Portal and niches adornment | Kala-Makara style; Kala head without lower jaw opening its mouth located on top of the portal, connected with double Makara on each side of the portal | Only Kala head sneering with the mouth complete with lower jaw located on top of the portal, Makara is absent |
Relief | Projected rather high from the background, the images was done in naturalistic style | Projected rather flat from the background, the images was done in stylized style similar to Balinese wayang image |
Layout and location of the main temple | Concentric mandala, symmetric, formal; with main temple located in the center of the complex surrounded by smaller perwara temples in regular rows | Linear, asymmetric, followed topography of the site; with main temple located in the back or furthermost from the entrance, often located in the highest ground of the complex, perwara temples is located in front of the main temple |
Direction | Mostly faced east | Mostly faced west |
Materials | Mostly andesite stone | Mostly red brick |
There are material, form, and location exceptions to these general design traits. While the Penataran, Jawi, Jago, Kidal and Singhasari temples, for example, belong to the eastern Java group, they use andesite stone similar to the Central Java temple material. Temple ruins in Trowulan, such as Brahu, Jabung and Pari temples use red brick. Also the Prambanan temple is tall and slender similar to the east Java style, yet the roof design is Central Javan in style. The location also do not always correlate with the temple styles, for example Candi Badut is located in Malang, East Java, yet the period and style belongs to older 8th century central Javanese style.
The earlier northern central Java complexes, such as the Dieng temples, are smaller and contain only several temples which exhibit simpler carving, whereas the later southern complexes, such as Sewu temple, are grander, with a richer elaboration of carving, and concentric layout of the temple complex.
The
Materials
Most of well-preserved candi in Indonesia are made from
- bas-reliefs. The walls of andesite was then carved with exquisite narrative bas-reliefs, which can be observed in many temples, especially in Borobudur and Prambanan. Andesite rocks are also used as the material for carved statues: the images of deities and Buddha.
- Brick is also used to construct temples. The oldest brick temple structure is the Batujaya temple compound in Karawang, West Java, dated from 2nd to 12th century CE. Although brick had been used in the candi of Indonesia's classical age, it was Majapahit architects of the 14th and 15th centuries who mastered it.[15] Making use of a vine sap and palm sugar mortar, their temples had a strong geometric quality. The example of Majapahit temples are Brahu temple in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo, Jabung in Probolinggo. Temples of Sumatra, such as Bahal temple, Muaro Jambi, and Muara Takus are made from bricks. However, compared to lava andesite stone, clay red bricks are less durable, especially if exposed to hot and humid tropical elements and torrential monsoon rain. As a result, many red brick structures were crumbling down over centuries, and reconstruction efforts require recasting and replacing the damaged structure with new bricks.
- Tuff is a volcanic rock that is quite abundant near Javanese volcanoes or limestone formations. In Indonesian and Javanese languages, tuff is called batu putih (white stone), which corresponds to its light color. The chalky characteristic of this stone, however, has made it unsuitable to be carved into bas-reliefs of building ornaments. Compared to andesite, tuff is considered as an inferior quality building material. In Javanese temples, tuff usually are used as stone fillings—forming the inner structure of the temple—while the outer layer employed andesite that is more suitable to be carved. The tuff quarries can be found in Sewu limestone ranges near Ratu Boko hill. The tuff fillings in the temple can be examined in Ratu Boko crematorium temple. Tuff was used as building material of outer walls of temple compound, such as te walls found buried around Sewu and Sambisari temple.
- Stucco is materials similar to modern concrete, made from the mixture of sand, stone, water, and sometimes ground clamshell. The stucco as temple building material is observable in the Batujaya temple compound in West Java.
- temple walls.
- Wood is believed to be used in some of candi construction or at least as parts of temple building material. Sari and Plaosan temples, for example, are known to have traces of stone indentions to support wooden beams and floors in its second floor, as well as traces of wooden stairs. Ratu Boko compound has building bases and stone umpak column base, which suggests that the wooden capitals once stood there to support wooden roof structure made of organic materials. Traces of holes to install wooden window railings and wooden doors are observable in many of the perwara (complementary smaller) temples. Of course, wooden materials are easily decayed in a humid tropical climate, leaving no traces after centuries.
Motif and decoration
Kala-Makara
The candis of ancient Java are notable with the application of kala-makara as both decorative and symbolic elements of the temple architecture.
Kala is the giant head, often takes place on top of the entrance with makaras projected on either sides of kala's head, flanking the portal or projecting on the top corner as antefixes. The kala-makara theme also can be found on stair railings on either sides. On the upper part of stairs, the mouth of kala's head projecting makara downward. The intricate stone carving of twin makaras flanking the lower level of stairs, with its curved bodies forming the stair's railings. Other than makaras, kala's head might also project its tongue as stair's railings. These types of stair-decorations can be observed in Borobudur and Prambanan. Makara's trunks are often describes as handling gold ornaments or spouting jewels, while in its mouth often projected Gana dwarf figures or animals such as lions or parrots.
Linga-Yoni
In ancient Javanese candi, the linga-yoni symbolism was only found in Hindu temples, more precisely those of Shivaist faith. Therefore, they are absent in Buddhist temples. The
Lingas are implanted in a flat square base with a hole in it, called a yoni, symbolic of the womb and also represents Parvati, Shiva's consort. A yoni usually has a kind of spout, usually decorated with nāga, to help channeled and collects the liquids poured upon linga-yoni during Hindu ritual. As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of worship and ritual. Oldest remains of linga-yoni can be found in Dieng temples from earlier period circa 7th century. Originally each temples might have a complete pair of linga-yoni unity. However, most of the times, the linga is missing.
In the tradition of Javanese kingship, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself or his dynasty, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality with Shiva. The example is the linga-yoni of
Bas-reliefs
The walls of candi often displayed
The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also depicted temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also
There are significant distinction of bas-reliefs' style and aesthetics between the Central Javanese period (prior of 1000 CE) and East Javanese period (after 1000 CE). The earlier Central Javanese style, as observable in Borobudur and Prambanan, are more exquisite and naturalistic in style. The reliefs is projected rather high from the background, the images was done in naturalistic style with proper ideal body proportion. On the other hand, the bas-reliefs of Eastern Javanese style is projected rather flat from the background, the images was done in stiffer pose and stylized style, similar to currently Balinese wayang images. The East Javanese style is currently preserved in Balinese art, style and aesthetics in temple bas-reliefs, also wayang shadow puppet imagery, as well as the Kamasan painting.
Deities
Kalpataru and Kinnaras
The images of coupled
The lower outer wall of Prambanan temples were adorned with row of small niche containing image of simha (lion) flanked by two panels depicting bountiful kalpataru (kalpavriksha) tree. These wish-fulfilling sacred trees according to Hindu-Buddhist beliefs, is flanked on either side by kinnaras or animals, such as pairs of birds, deer, sheep, monkeys, horses, elephants etc. The pattern of lion in niche flanked by kalpataru trees is typical in Prambanan temple compound, thus it is called as "Prambanan panel".
Boddhisattva and Tara
In Buddhist temples, the panels of bas-reliefs usually adorned with exquisite images of male figure of
Bodhisattvas are usually depicted as handsome man with peaceful and serene facial expression, adorned with luxurious jewelry akin to a king or a deity. While the Taras are his female counterparts, figures of beautiful celestial maidens. Both figures are depicted gracefully, usually holding various kinds of lotus (red , Sari, Kalasan, Sewu, Pawon and of course Borobudur temple.
Devata and Apsara
In Hindu temples, the celestial couple; male Devatas and female Apsaras are usually found adorns the panels of temple's walls. They are the Hindu counterpart of Buddhist Bodhisattva-Tara celestial beings. On the other side of narrative panels in Prambanan, the temple wall along the gallery were adorned with the statues and reliefs of devatas and brahmin sages. The figure of lokapalas, the celestial guardians of directions can be found in Shiva temple. The Brahmin sage editors of veda were carved on Brahma temple wall, while in Vishnu temple the figures of a male deities devatas flanked by two apsaras. The depiction of celestial beings of lesser gods and goddesses—devatas and apsaras, describes the Hindu concept of sacred realm of Svargaloka. This is corresponds to the concept of the towering Hindu temple as the epitome of Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology.
Guardians
Dvarapala
Most of larger temple compound in ancient Java were guarded by a pair of dvarapala statues, as gate guardians. The twin giants usually placed flanked the entrance in front of the temple, or in four cardinal points. Dvarapala took form of two fierce giants or demons that ward off evil and malevolent spirits from entering the sacred temple compounds. In Central Javanese art, dvarapala is mostly portrayed as a stout and rather chubby giant, with fierce face of glaring round goggle eyes, protruding fangs, curly hairs and moustaches, with fat and round belly. The giant usually depicted as holding gada and sometimes knives as weapon.
In East Javanese art and Balinese version however, the dvarapala usually depicted rather well-built and muscular, with a fine example taken from Adan-adan site near Kediri.
Lion
The statues of a pair of lions (Sanskrit: Siṁha, Indonesian and Javanese: Singa) flanking the portal, are often placed as the guardians of candi entrance. Lions were never native to Southeast Asia in recorded history. As the result, the depiction of lions in ancient Southeast Asian art, especially in ancient Java and Cambodia, is far from the naturalistic style as depicted in Greek or Persian art counterparts, since the depictions were all based on perception and imagination. The cultural depictions and the reverence of lions as the noble and powerful beasts in Southeast Asia was influenced by Indian culture especially through Buddhist symbolism.
Statues of a pair of lions often founds in temples in Southeast Asia as the gate guardians. In
Stupa, Ratna and Vajra pinnacles
The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly from its pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof, while ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples.
The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace of Arupadhatu consist of round lotus pedestal (padmasana or "lotus pad"), gently sloped bell-shaped dome (anda), a rectangular or octagonal shape (harmika)[20] sits on top of the dome serves as the base of hexagonal rod-like pinnacle (yasti).[21]
Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or rhombus. Statues of the
Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical, completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams (Javanese: pelipit). This form is known as keben pinnacle or the form of Barringtonia asiatica fruit.[22] It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna pinnacle is Sambisari and Ijo temple.
In Prambanan, the stylized
Location
The high concentration of candi can be found especially dense in Sleman Regency in Yogyakarta, also Magelang and Klaten in Central Java; which corresponds to the historical region of Kedu Plain (Progo River valley, Temanggung-Magelang-Muntilan area) and Kewu Plain (Opak River valley, around Prambanan), the cradle of Javanese civilization. Other important sites with notable temple compounds includes Malang, Blitar and Trowulan areas in East Java. West Java also contains a small number of temples such as Batujaya and Cangkuang. Outside of Java, the candi type of temple can be found in Bali, Sumatra, and Southern Kalimantan, although they are quite scarce. In Sumatra, two exceptional sites are notable for its temple density; the Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds in Jambi and Padang Lawas or Bahal complex in North Sumatra.
The candis might be built on plain or uneven terrain. Prambanan and Sewu temples for example, are built on even flat low-lying terrain, while the temples of Gedong Songo and Ijo are built on hill terraces on higher grounds or mountain slopes. Borobudur on the other hand is built upon a bedrock hill. The position, orientation and spatial organization of the temples within the landscape, and also their architectural designs, were determined by socio-cultural, religious and economic factors of the people, polity or the civilization that built and support them.[23]
Java
West Java
- Batujaya, a compound of Buddhist Stupa made from red brick and mortar located at Batu Jaya, Karawang, West Java. Probably dated back to Tarumanagara kingdom in the 6th century AD.[24]
- Cibuaya, a compound of Vishnuite Hindu temples made from red brick and mortar also located at Batu Jaya, Karawang, West Java.[25] Probably linked to Tarumanagara kingdom in the 6th century AD.
- Bojongmenje, ruins of Hindu temple in Rancaekek, Bandung Regency.
- Candi Cangkuang, the only one of the last few surviving West Javanese Hindu temples to be dated as early as the 8th century (approximately). It is located at Leles, Garut, West Java. Located on an island in the middle of a lake covered by water lilies. Unlike other Javanese temple characteristics by grand architecture, Cangkuang temple is more modest with only one structure still standing.[26] Shivastatue faces east toward the sunrise. Date uncertain.
Central Java
Dieng Plateau
The Hindu temple compound located in
- Arjuna temple
- Semar temple
- Srikandi temple
- Puntadewa temple
- Sembadra temple
- Dwarawati temple
- Gatotkaca temple
- Bima temple
Gedong Songo and surrounds
- South-west of Semarang, Central Java. Five temples constructed in 8th and 9th centuries. The site highlights how, in Hinduism, location of temples was as important as the structures themselves. The site has panoramas of three volcanoes and Dieng Plateau.
- Candi Klero located in Tengaran district.
- Candi ngempon located in Bergas district.
Borobudur and Kedu Plain
The
- Buddha. A UNESCO World Heritage Site.
- Pawon. 8th-century Buddhist temple.
- Mendut. 8th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple.
- Ngawen. Five aligned sanctuaries, one decorated with finely sculpted lions. 8th-century Buddhist temple located east from Mendut temple. The name linked to Venuvana, "the temple of bamboo forest".
- National Museumin Jakarta.
- Umbul, a 9th-century bathing complex in Grabag, Magelang
- Gunung Sari. Ruins of three secondary temples and the foot of the main temple remain.
- Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest inscriptions on Java, written in 732 CE, found here. Only the bases remain of the main sanctuary and three secondary temples.
Slopes of Merapi
- Sengi complex. Three temples, . 8th and 9th century. The base of the temple has a climbing plant motif.
- Gebang
- Morangan
- Pustakasala
- Lawang
Near Yogyakarta
- Candi Sambisari. 10th century underground Hindu temple buried by eruptions from Mount Merapifor a century. Discovered in 1966 by a farmer plowing his field.
- Candi Kadisoka, uncompleted 8th-century temple buried by eruptions from Merapi. Thought to have been Hindu temple, discovered in 2000.
Prambanan Plain
- Roro Jonggrang, the main stories.
- Sewu. Buddhist temple complex, older than Roro Jonggrang. A main sanctuary surrounded by many smaller temples. Well preserved guardian statues, replicas of which stand in the central courtyard at the Jogja Kraton.
- Candi Lumbung. Buddhist temple ruin located south from Sewu temple, consisting of one main temple surrounded by 16 smaller ones.
- Bubrah. Buddhist temple located between Candi Lumbung and Candi Sewu.
- Candi Gana. Buddhist temple ruin rich in statues, bas-reliefs and sculpted stones. Frequent representations of children or dwarfs with raised hands. Located east from Sewu complex in the middle of housing complex. Under restoration since 1997.
- Plaosan. Buddhist temple compound located few kilometers east from Sewu temple, probably 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for his Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of a man and a woman. Slender stupa.
- Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing different poses and expressions.
- Sajiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and staircase are decorated with animal fables.
- Candi Sari. Once a sanctuary for Buddhist priests. 8th century. Nine stupas at the top with two rooms beneath, each believed to be places for priests to meditate.
- Candi Kalasan. 8th-century Buddhist temple built in commemoration of the marriage of a king and his princess bride, ornamented with finely carved reliefs.
- Candi Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4m deep. Square base of main temple visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated.
Ratu Boko and surrounds
- Ratu Boko Built between 8th and 9th centuries. Mixed Buddhist and Hindu style. Partially restored palace auditorium. Ruins of the royal garden with a bathing pool inside.
- Arca Gopolo. A group of seven statues in a circle, as if in assembly. Flower decoration on the clothes of the largest are still visible.
- Banyunibo. A small 9th-century Buddhist complex. A main temple surrounded by six smaller ones forming a stupa. Restoration completed in 1978.
- Barong. Two almost identical temples on terraces. Believed to be 9th-century Hindu and part of a sacred complex, of which they were the crown.
- Dawangsari. Perhaps the site of a destroyed Buddhist stupa, now reduced to an array of andesite stones.
- Candi Ijo. A complex of three-tiered temples, but only one has been renovated. A main sanctuary and three secondary shrines with statues. Still under reconstruction.
- Watugudig. A group of pole sittings in the shape of a Javanese gong. About 40 have been discovered, but others may remain buried. Locals believe this to be the resting place of King Boko.
- Candi Abang. Actually a well that looks like a pyramid with very tall walls. In some aspects looks like Borobudur. Unique atmosphere.
- Candi Gampingan. Ruins 1.1.5 m (4.9 ft) underground of a temple and stairs. Reliefs of animals at the foot of the temple are believed to be a fable.
- Sentono. At the base of Abang temple. Perhaps younger than other regional temples. Complex of caves with two mouths. Statue and bas-relief in left chamber.
- Situs Payak. The best preserved bathing place in Central Java. 5m below ground. Thought to be Hindu.
Klaten Regency
East of Yogyakarta, Central Java.
- Candi Merak. Two 10th century Hindu temples, rich in reliefs and decorations, in the middle of a village.
- Candi Karangnongko. Difficult to date because remains are few.
Mount Lawu
Near Surakarta, Central Java.
- Candi Cetho. On the slopes of Mount Lawu. A 15th-century Hindu temple 1,470 m (4,820 ft) above sea level.
- Candi Sukuh. On the slopes of Mount Lawu. 15th-century Hindu complex resembling a Mayan temple. Reliefs illustrate life before birth and sex education.
- Candi Watu Genuk estimated from the 8th century. located in Mojosongo, Boyolali
- Candi sari and Candi lawang located in mount merapi-merbabu Cepogo, Boyolali
East Java
Malang area
Malang, East Java.
- Shivaitetemple dating from the 8th century.
- Candi Songgoriti. Very similar to Candi Sembrada at Dieng, this Hindu temple is located in a valley between mount Arjuna and Mount Kawi, East Java
- Candi Jago. Late 13th century. Terraces decorated with reliefs in the distinctive (Javanese shadow puppet) style with scenes from the Mahabharataepic and underworld demons.
- Candi Singosari. Dedicated to the kings of the Singosari Dynasty(1222 to 1292 AD), the precursors of the Majapahit Kingdom, it was built in 1304.
- Arca Dwarapala. Dedicated to the kings of the Singosari Dynasty (1222 to 1292 AD).
- Candi Kidal
- Sumberawan
- Candi Rambut Monte
- Candi Selakelir
Blitar area
- Majapahit Empire.
- Candi Bacem
- Candi Boro
- Candi Kalicilik
- Candi Kotes
- Candi Wringin Branjang
- Candi Sawentar
- Candi Sumbernanas
- Candi Sumberjati or Candi Simping
- Candi Gambar Wetan
- Candi Plumbangan
- Candi Tepas
Kediri area
- Candi Adan-adan, a Buddhist temple located on the northeast slope of Kelud volcano near Kediri town, precisely in Adan-adan village, Gurah subdistrict, Kediri Regency, East Java.[27] The temple is recently discovered in 2017.[28] It is known with its exquisite fragment of Boddhisattva head and dvarapala guardian.
- Candi Surowonois a small temple, of the Majapahit Kingdom, located in the Canggu Village of the Kediri (near Pare) district in Java, Indonesia. It was believed to have been built in 1390 AD as a memorial to Wijayarajasa, the Prince of Wengker.
- Candi Tegowangi
- Arca Totok Kerot
- Arca Mbah Budho
- Candi Dorok
- Candi Tondowongso
- Gua Selomangleng
- Gua Selobale
- Calon Arang Site is a site who inspired Leak dance in Bali Indonesia
- Babadan or SumberCangkring Site
- Prasasti Pohsarang
- Candi Setono Gedong and today a mosque
Sidoarjo, Tretes, and Probolinggo areas
- Dermo, in Sidoarjo. A 13.5 m high gapura made of red bricks.
- Pari, in Sidoarjo. Dated from 1293 Saka (1371 CE), this Majapahit red brick temple bear similarity with Champa architecture.
- Candi Sumur, in Sidoarjo. Located just a hundred meters from Candi Pari, probably built in the same era.
- Gunung Gangsir, in Gunung Gangsir hamlet, Beji village, Pasuruan Regency, located about 18 kilometres east from Pasuruan city.[29]
- Candi Jawi, Tretes. A 13th-century funerary temple. Slender Shiva-Buddhist shrine completed around 1300.
- Penanggungan sites, Mount Penanggungan, which has terraced sanctuaries, meditation grottoes and sacred pools, about 80 sites in all including Candi Belahan believed to be the burial site of King Airlangga, who died in 1049.
- Candi Jabung, east of Probolinggo, near Kraksaan. According to the inscription on the top of the temple portal, Jabung dates from 1276 saka (1354 CE).
- Candi Kedaton Probolinggo. Andesite Hindu temple from Tiris, Probolinggo.
Trowulan
- Candi Tikus, Trowulan. Trowulan was once the capital of the Majapahit kingdom, the controller of most of the important ports of the day. Survived thanks to a sophisticated irrigation system. Tikus held run-off water from Mount Penanggungan for sanctification rites. Site also contains parts of the palace gate, entryway and water system.
- Candi Brahu, Trowulan. Location the temple front of Bubat Area in Majapahit Palace environment (7°32'33.85"S, 112°22'28.01"E). Brahu Temple is a budhis temple, built at 15 a.c and restored during 1990 and was finished during 1995. There was no accurate note the function of the temple.
- Candi Gentong, Trowulan. Location the temple 350m east of Brahu temple(7°32'38.05"S, 112°22'40.65"E). Many Ceramic from Ming and Yuan Dynasty founded in this temple area. There was no accurate note the function of the temple.
- Candi Muteran, Trowulan. Location the temple north of Brahu temple ( 7°32'27.72"S, 112°22'29.41"E). There was no accurate note the function of the temple.
- Kolam Segaran, Trowulan. Segaran pond is Majapahit Heritage (7°33'29.55"S,112°22'57.54"E) The Pond was found during 1926 by Ir.Maclain Pont. First restoration was 1966, finished at 1984. The function of this pond was as the place of recreation and to greet the foreign guest. This was the biggest ancient pond founded in Indonesia.
- Gapura Bajang Ratu, Trowulan.
- Gerbang Wringin Lawang, Trowulan.
Mojokerto
Mojokerto Regency, East Java.
- Candi Bangkal
- Candi Jolotundo, also known as Petirtaan Jolotundo.
- Candi Jedong
- Candi Kedaton Trowulan, red brick structure that may have been a foundation of a candi.
- Candi Minak Jinggo
Bali
- Candi Gunung Kawi. Located in Sebatu village, Tampak Siring area, Gianyar regency. It is one of the oldest temple in Bali dated from 989 CE, the five temples is carved on the stone slopes forming grottoes.
- Candi Kalibukbuk. Located in Kalibukbuk village, Buleleng regency. It is one of the few Buddhist temple in Hindu dominated Bali. The temple is thought to be dated from the 8th century.
- Candi Mengening. Located in Banjar Sarasada, Tampaksiring village, Gianyar regency. Dated from the reign of king Marakata circa 1022 CE.[30]
Sumatra
- South Tapanuli, North Sumatra
- Candi Bumiayu, South Sumatra
- Candi Muara Takus, Riau
- Candi Muaro Jambi, Jambi
Kalimantan
- Candi Agung, North Hulu Sungai, South Kalimantan, a Hindu Candi. South Kalimantan was a base of Hindu Kingdom of Negara Dipa, which then inherited by Negara Daha.
- Candi Laras, Tapin, South Kalimantan, a Buddhist Candi. Buddhist Kingdom in South Kalimantan was represented by the kingdom of Tanjung Puri.
Gallery
Indonesian candi, Hindu-Buddhist temples, dated from the oldest circa 2nd century, to latest, circa 15th century.
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Blandongan, Batujaya, 2nd to 12th century, Karawang, West Java
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Gumpung, Muaro Jambi, 7th–12th century, Jambi
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Bojongmenje, 7th century, Rancaekek, Bandung, West Java
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Cangkuang, 8th century, Leles, Garut, West Java
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Candi Bima, 7th–8th century, Dieng Plateau
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Candi Puntadewa, 7th–8th century, Dieng Plateau
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Candi Arjuna, 7th–8th century, Dieng Plateau
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Candi Srikandi, 7th–8th century, Dieng Plateau
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Candi Gatotkaca, 7th–8th century, Dieng Plateau
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Candi Semar, 7th–8th century, Dieng Plateau
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Candi Gedong Songo, 7th–8th century, Ungaran
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Gunung Wukir, 8th century, Muntilan
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Badut temple, 8th century, Malang
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Kalasan temple, 8th century, near Prambanan
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Sari temple, 8th century
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Lumbung, 8th century
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Sewu, 8th century, Central Java
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Bubrah, 8th century, part of Sewu Mandala
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Gana temple, 8th century, part of Sewu Mandala
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Ngawen temple, 8th century, Muntilan, Central Java
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Mendut temple, 8th century, near Borobudur
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Candi Gebang, 8th–9th century, Yogyakarta
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Asu Temple, 8th–9th century, Sengi, Magelang
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Lumbung Sengi temple, 8th–9th century, Sengi, Sawangan, Magelang
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Pawon temple, 9th century, between Borobudur and Mendut
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Borobudur, 9th century, Magelang, Central Java, world's largest Buddhist monument
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Plaosan, 9th century
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Plaosan Kidul, 9th century
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Prambanan, 9th century, the largest Hindu Temple in Indonesia
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Sojiwan, 9th century, near Prambanan
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Banyunibo, 9th century
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Sambisari, 9th century
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Barong temple, 9th century
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Kimpulan, 9th–10th century, Kaliurang, Yogyakarta
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Morangan temple, 9th–10th century, Ngemplak, Sleman, Yogyakarta
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Merak temple, 10th century, Klaten, Central Java
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Ijo Temple, 10th–11th century, Yogyakarta
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Belahan temple, fountain and pool, 11th century, Mount Penanggungan, Gempol, Pasuruan, East Java
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Candi Gunung Gangsir, 11th century, Pasuruan, East Java
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Candi Mengening, 11th century, Tampaksiring, Bali
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Gunung Kawi, 11th century, Tampak Siring, Bali
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Muara Takus, 11th–12th century, Riau
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Bahal temple, 11th–13th century, North Sumatra
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Penataran, 12th–15th century, Blitar
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Kidal, 13th century, Malang
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Jago, 13th century, Malang
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Jawi, 13th century, Prigen, Pasuruan
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Candi Plumbangan, 14th century, Blitar, East Java
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Simping temple, 14th century, Sumberjati, Blitar, East Java
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Candi Gayatri, 14th century, Boyolangu, Tulungagung, East Java
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Brahu, Trowulan, 14th century
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Candi Wringin Lawang, Trowulan, 14th century
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Bajang Ratu, Trowulan, 14th century
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Candi Tikus, Trowulan, 14th century
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Candi Rimbi, Jombang, 14th century
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Surawana temple, Kediri, 14th century
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Jabung, Paiton, Probolinggo, 14th century
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Candi Bangkal, Mojokerto, 14th century
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Candi Pari, 14th century, Porong, Sidoarjo
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Sukuh, 15th century, Karanganyar
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Ceto, 15th century, Karanganyar
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Dermo temple, 14th century, Sidoarjo
See also
- Architecture of Indonesia
- Ancient temples of Java
- Balinese temple
- Buddhism in Indonesia
- Buddhist architecture
- Burmese pagoda
- Cetiya
- Chaitya
- Hinduism in Indonesia
- Hinduism in Java
- Hindu temple architecture
- History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia
- Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism
- Kyaung, temples in Myanmar
- Pagodas
- Sand pagoda
- Stupa
- Vihāra
- Wat, temples in Cambodia, Thailand, and Laos
References
- ^ a b Soekmono (1995), p. 1
- ^ "Candi". KBBI (in Indonesian).
- ^ Sedyawati (2013), p. 1
- ^ Tomi Sujatmiko (9 June 2013). "Peninggalan Majapahit Yang Tersembunyi di Alas Purwo". Kedaulatan Rakyat (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 November 2015.
- ^ "Replika Candi Pawon". Vihāra Jakarta Dhammacakka Jaya.
- ^ "Prasada". Sanskrit dictionary.
- ^ Philip Rawson: The Art of Southeast Asia
- ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1.
- ISBN 978-981-3018-26-6
- ISBN 979-413-290-X.
- ^ "History of Women in Buddhism - Indonesia: Part 10". Shakyadita: Awakening Buddhist Women.
- ^ Sedyawati (2013), p. 4
- ^ Konservasi Borobudur Archived 2011-07-26 at the Wayback Machine (in Indonesian)
- ISBN 979-413-290-X.
- ISBN 962-593-232-1.
- ^ "The Greatest Sacred Buildings". Museum of World Religions, Taipei. Archived from the original on 2017-02-07. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
- ^ "Candi Gunung Wukir". Southeast Asian Kingdoms. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
- ^ Cockrem, Tom (May 18, 2008). "Temple of enlightenment". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 11 November 2011 – via The Buddhist Channel.tv.
- ^ "Pusat Arkeologi Nasional Menyingkap Misteri Candi yang Hilang - Semua Halaman - National Geographic". nationalgeographic.grid.id (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2021-07-21.
- ^ "Stupa adalah lambang dari agama Buddha yang berbentuk mangkuk terbalik, dengan bentuk persegi empat dan atau segi delapan (harmika)". Balai Konservasi Borobudur (in Indonesian). 2018-02-22. Retrieved 2021-07-21.
- ^ "Stupa Candi Buddha". Balai Arkeologi Provinsi D.I Yogyakarta (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2021-07-21.
- ^ adminpedia. "KEBEN – BorobudurPedia" (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2021-07-18.
- ^ Degroot (2009), p. 2
- ^ Sedyawati (2013), p. 36
- ^ Sedyawati (2013), p. 38
- ^ "Garut: The Hidden Beauty of West Java". The jakarta post.
- ^ "Situs Adan-adan di Kediri Dipastikan sebagai Candi Buddha". kompas.id (in Indonesian). 2019-07-18. Retrieved 2021-07-21.
- ^ Firman, Tony. "Arca Dwarapala Langka dari Kerajaan Kediri Ditemukan Arkenas". tirto.id (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2021-07-21.
- ^ "Candi Gununggangsir". Perpusnas.
- ^ "Pura Mangening". diparda.gianyarkab.go.id (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2019-01-21.
Bibliography
- ISBN 9789004102156.
- Degroot, Véronique (2009). Candi, Space and Landscape: A Study on the Distribution, Orientation and Spatial Organization of Central Javanese Temple Remains. Leiden: Sidestone Press, Issue 38 of Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde. ISBN 9789088900396.
- Sedyawati, Edi; Santiko, Hariani; Djafar, Hasan; Maulana, Ratnaesih; Ramelan, Wiwin Djuwita Sudjana; Ashari, Chaidir (2013). Candi Indonesia: Seri Jawa (in Indonesian and English). Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan. ISBN 9786021766934.
Further reading
- Dumarcay, J. 1986 Temples of Java Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press
- Holt, C. 1967 Art in Indonesia Ithaca: Cornell University
- Patt, J.A. 1979 The Uses and Symbolism of Water in Ancient Indonesian Temple Architecture University of California, Berkeley (unublished PhD thesis)
- Prijotomo, J. 1984 Ideas and Forms of Javanese Architecture Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press
- Degroot, Véronique 2009 Candi, Space and Landscape: A Study on the Distribution, Orientation and Spatial Organization of Central Javanese Temple Remains Leiden: Sidestone Press, Issue 38 of Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden, ISBN 9088900396
External links
- List of Candi, National Library of Indonesia (archived 3 July 2013)
- General site about Borobudur and candi (archived 25 October 2006)