History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia
Unlike the other kingdoms which existed on the Indian subcontinent, the Pallava empire which ruled the southeastern coast of the Indian peninsula did not impose cultural restrictions on people who wished to cross the sea.[citation needed] The Chola empire, which executed the South-East Asian campaign of Rajendra Chola I and the Chola invasion of Srivijaya, profoundly impacted Southeast Asia. This impact led to more exchanges with Southeast Asia on the sea routes. Whereas Buddhism thrived and became the main religion in many countries of Southeast Asia, it became a minority religion in India.
The peoples of
Southern Indian traders, adventurers, teachers and priests continued to be the dominating influences in Southeast Asia until about 1500 CE. Hinduism and Buddhism both spread to these states from India and for many centuries, they existed there with mutual toleration. Eventually the states of the mainland mainly became Buddhist.
Drivers of the Indianization of Southeast Asia
The key drivers of the
Indian maritime trade with Southeast Asia
The first clear mention of a navy occurs in the
Buddhist missions
In the Sri Lankan tradition, Moggaliputta-Tissa – who is patronised by Ashoka – sends out nine Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the "border areas" in c. 250 BCE. This tradition does not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions. Each mission comprises five monks, and is headed by an elder.[10] To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son Mahinda, accompanied by four other Theras – Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala.[11] Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of the Yonas (Greeks), Maharashtra, Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka.[11]
The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the following missionaries:[12]
- Mahinda to Sri Lanka
- Majjhantika to Kashmir and Gandhara
- Mahadeva to Mahisa-mandala (possibly modern Mysore region)
- Rakkhita to Vanavasa
- Dhammarakkhita the Greek to Aparantaka (western India)
- Maha-dhamma-rakkhita to Maharashtra
- Maharakkhita to the Greek country
- Majjhima to the Himalayas
- Soṇa and Uttara to Suvaṇṇabhūmi (possibly Lower Burma and Thailand)
The tradition adds that during his 19th regnal year, Ashoka's daughter Sanghamitta went to Sri Lanka to establish an order of nuns, taking a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree with her.[10][13]
Scholars, such as
According to Gombrich, the mission may have included representatives of other religions, and thus, Lamotte's objection about "dhamma" is not valid. The Buddhist chroniclers may have decided not to mention these non-Buddhists, so as not to sideline Buddhism.[16] Frauwallner and Gombrich also believe that Ashoka was directly responsible for the missions, since only a resourceful ruler could have sponsored such activities. The Sri Lankan chronicles, which belong to the Theravada school, exaggerate the role of the Theravadin monk Moggaliputta-Tissa in order to glorify their sect.[16]
Some historians argue that Buddhism became a major religion because of Ashoka's royal patronage.[17]
Early Common Era—High Middle Ages
During this era, Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be associated with economic activity and commerce as patrons entrusted large funds which would later be used to benefit local economy by estate management, craftsmanship and promotion of trading activities.[18] Buddhism, in particular, travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting coinage, art and literacy.[19]
In
The
The kingdoms of
The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.
During the reign of
Late Middle Ages
Maritime route
Maritime Silk Road or Maritime Silk Route refer to the maritime section of historic Silk Road that connects China to Southeast Asia, Indonesian archipelago, Indian subcontinent, Arabian Peninsula, all the way to Egypt and finally Europe.[45]
The trade route encompassed numbers of bodies of waters; including
Expansion of religions
Richard Foltz, Xinru Liu, and others have described how trading activities along the Silk Road over many centuries facilitated the transmission not just of goods but also ideas and culture, notably in the area of religions. Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity, Manichaeism, and Islam all spread across Eurasia through trade networks that were tied to specific religious communities and their institutions.[46] Notably, established Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road offered a haven, as well as a new religion for foreigners.[47]
The spread of religions and cultural traditions along the Silk Roads, according to Jerry H. Bentley, also led to syncretism. One example was the encounter with the Chinese and Xiongnu nomads. These unlikely events of cross-cultural contact allowed both cultures to adapt to each other as an alternative. The Xiongnu adopted Chinese agricultural techniques, dress style, and lifestyle, while the Chinese adopted Xiongnu military techniques, some dress style, music, and dance.[48] Perhaps most surprising of the cultural exchanges between China and the Xiongnu, Chinese soldiers sometimes defected and converted to the Xiongnu way of life, and stayed in the steppes for fear of punishment.[48]
Nomadic mobility played a key role in facilitating inter-regional contacts and cultural exchanges along the ancient Silk Roads.[49][50]
Transmission of Buddhism
The transmission of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road began in the 1st century CE, according to a semi-legendary account of an ambassador sent to the West by the Chinese Emperor Ming (58–75). During this period Buddhism began to spread throughout Southeast, East, and Central Asia.[54] Mahayana, Theravada, and Tibetan Buddhism are the three primary forms of Buddhism that spread across Asia via the Silk Road.[55]
The Buddhist movement was the first large-scale missionary movement in the history of world religions. Chinese missionaries were able to assimilate Buddhism, to an extent, to native Chinese Daoists, which brought the two beliefs together.
One result of the spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road was displacement and conflict. The Greek Seleucids were exiled to Iran and Central Asia because of a new Iranian dynasty called the Parthians at the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, and as a result the Parthians became the new middle men for trade in a period when the Romans were major customers for silk. Parthian scholars were involved in one of the first Buddhist text translations into the Chinese language. Its main trade centre on the Silk Road, the city of Merv, in due course and with the coming of age of Buddhism in China, became a major Buddhist centre by the middle of the 2nd century.[61] Knowledge among people on the silk roads also increased when Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty (268–239 BCE) converted to Buddhism and raised the religion to official status in his northern Indian empire.[62]
From the 4th century CE onward, Chinese pilgrims also started to travel on the Silk Road to India to get improved access to the original Buddhist scriptures, with
There were many different schools of Buddhism travelling on the Silk Road. The Dharmaguptakas and the Sarvastivadins were two of the major Nikaya schools. These were both eventually displaced by the Mahayana, also known as "Great Vehicle". This movement of Buddhism first gained influence in the
During the 5th and 6th centuries CE,
Brunei
Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms (? - ~1400)
The history of Brunei before the arrival of
Indianised Islamic sultanate (~1400 - present day)
In 1402, Sultan Muhammad Shah died, he was first to convert from Hindu-Buddhism to Islam, and his pre-conversion name was Awang Alak Betatar.
Burma (Myanmar)
At the western end of the South East Asian mainland, Lower Burma was occupied by the Mon peoples who are thought to have come originally from western China. In Lower Burma they supplanted an earlier people: the Pyu, of whom little is known except that they practised Hinduism.
Arrival of Buddhism and impact of Indian literature (3rd century CE onward)
The Mons strongly influenced by their contacts with Indian traders during the 3rd century B.C adopted Indian literature and art and the Buddhist religion. The Mons were the earliest known civilization in Southeast Asia. They consisted of several Mon kingdoms, spreading from Lower Burma into much of Thailand, where they founded the kingdom of Dvaravati. Their principal settlements in Burma were Thaton Kingdom and Pegu.
Tibeto-Burman Buddhist kingdoms (11th - 13th century CE )
From about the 9th century onward Tibeto-Burman tribes moved south from the hills east of Tibet into the Irrawaddy plain. They founded their capital at
13th-21st century
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In the 14th century, the Delhi sultanate controlled nearly all the territory that comprises present-day India. However, invaders from Central Asia weakened and broke up the sultanate's empire before it was swept aside by the Mughals in 1526.[71]
Cambodia
Funan
The first of these Hinduised states to achieve widespread importance was the
Chenla and Angkor
In late 6th century CE, dynastic struggles caused the collapse of the Funan empire. It was succeeded by another Hindu-Khmer state, Chenla, which lasted until the 9th century. Then a Khmer king, Jayavarman II (about 800–850) established a capital at Angkor in central Cambodia. He founded a cult which identified the king with the Hindu God Shiva – one of the triad of Hindu gods, Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, Shiva the god symbolising destruction and reproduction. The Angkor empire flourished from the 9th to the early 13th century. It reached the peak of its fame under Jayavarman VII at the end of the 12th century, when its conquests extended into Thailand in the west (where it had conquered the Mon kingdom of Dwaravati) and into Champa in the east. Its most celebrated memorial is the great temple of Angkor Wat, built early in the 12th century. This summarises the position on the South East Asian mainland until about the 12th century. Meanwhile, from about the 6th century, and until the 14th century, there was a series of great maritime empires based on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java. In early days these Indians came mostly from the ancient kingdom of Kalinga, on the southeastern coast of India. Indians in Indonesia are still known as "Klings", derived from Kalinga.
East Timor
The later Timorese were not seafarers, rather they were land focused peoples who did not make contact with other islands and peoples by sea. Timor was part of a region of small islands with small populations of similarly land-focused peoples that now make up eastern Indonesia. Contact with the outside world was via networks of foreign seafaring traders from as far as China and India that served the archipelago. Outside products brought to the region included metal goods, rice, fine textiles, and coins exchanged for local spices, sandalwood, deer horn, bees' wax, and slaves.[72]
Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms
Indianised Javanese Hindu-Buddhist Srivijaya empire (7th - 12th century)
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Oral traditions of people of
As a vassal of the Indianized Javanese Hindu empire of Majapahit (12th - 16th century)
Nagarakretagama, the chronicles of the Majapahit empire called Timor a tributary,[74] but as Portuguese chronologist Tomé Pires wrote in the 16th century, all islands east of Java were called "Timor".[75] Indonesian nationalist used the Majapahit chronicles to claim East Timor as part of Indonesia.[76]
Trade with China
Timor is mentioned in the 13th-century Chinese
Chiefdoms or polities
Early European explorers report that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms in the early 16th century. One of the most significant is the
European colonisation and Christianisation (16th century onward)
Beginning in the early sixteenth century, European colonialists—the Dutch in the island's west, and Portuguese in the east—would divide the island, isolating the East Timorese from the histories of the surrounding archipelago.[74]
Indonesia
Approximately for more than a millennia, between 5th to 15th centuries, the various Indianised states and empires flourished in the
Srivijaya empire
The Indonesian archipelago saw the rise of Hindu-Buddhist empires of Sumatra and Java. In the islands of Southeast Asia, one of the first organised state to achieve fame was the Buddhist Malay kingdom of Srivijaya, with its capital at Palembang in southern Sumatra. Its commercial pre-eminence was based on command of the sea route from India to China between Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula (later known as the Straits of Malacca). In the 6th – 7th centuries Srivijaya succeeded Funan as the leading state in Southeast Asia. Its ruler was the overlord of the Malay Peninsula and western Java as well as Sumatra. During the era of Srivijaya, Buddhism became firmly entrenched there.
Sailendra dynasty
The expansion of Srivijaya was resisted in eastern Java, where the powerful Buddhist
Mataram kingdom
In the 10th century, Mataram to the challenged the supremacy of Srivijaya, resulting in the destruction of the Mataram capital by Srivijaya early in the 11th century. Restored by King Airlangga (c. 1020–1050), the kingdom split on his death and the new state of Kediri was formed in eastern Java.
Kediri kingdom
Singhasari kingdom
In the 13th century, however, the Kediri dynasty was overthrown by a revolution, and
Majapahit empire
With the departure of the Sailendras and the fall of Singhasari, a new
Laos
Funan kingdom
The first indigenous kingdom to emerge in
Champa kingdom
By the 2nd century CE, Austronesian settlers had established an Indianised kingdom known as
Chenla kingdom
The capital of early
Khmer kingdom
Under the king Jayavarman II the Khmer Empire began to take shape in the 9th century CE.[81][82]
Dvaravati city state kingdoms
In the area which is modern northern and central Laos, and northeast
Malaysia
The Malay Peninsula was settled by prehistoric people 80,000 years ago. Another batch of peoples the deutro Malay migrated from southern China within 10,000 years ago. Upon arrival in the peninsula some of them mix with the Australoid. This gave the appearance of the Malays. It was suggested that the visiting ancient Dravidians named the peoples of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatera as "Malay ur" meant hills and city based on the geographical terrain of Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatera. Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος; c. 90 – c. 168), known in English as Ptolemy, was a Greek geographer, astronomer, and astrologer who had written about Golden Chersonese, which indicates trade with the Indian Sub-Continent and China has existed since the 1st century AD.[85] Archeologist have found relic and ruin in Bujang Valley settlement dating back at 110AD. The settlement is believed to be the oldest civilization in Southeast Asia influenced by ancient Indians. Today, Malaysians of direct Indian descent account for approximately 7 per cent of the total population of Malaysia (approximately. 2 million) [citation needed]
Hinduism and Buddhism from India dominated early regional history, reaching their peak during the reign of the Sumatra-based Srivijaya civilisation, whose influence extended through Sumatra, Java, the Malay Peninsula and much of Borneo from the 7th to the 13th centuries, which later gradually defeated and converted to Islam in 14th and 15th century before the European colonisation began in 16th century.
Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms (3rd century BCE to 14th century CE)
Early trade and Indian settlements
In the first millennium CE, Malays became the dominant race on the peninsula. The small early states that were established were greatly influenced by Indian culture, as was most of Southeast Asia.
In ancient Indian literature, the term
Indianised Hindu Malay kingdoms (3rd century to 7th century)
There were numerous Malay kingdoms in the 2nd and 3rd century, as many as 30, mainly based on the Eastern side of the Malay Peninsula.
Indianised Hindu-Buddhist Malay kingdoms as vassal of Srivijaya empire (7th - 13th century)
Between the 7th and the 13th century, much of the
Relationship of the Srivijaya empire with the Tamil Chola empire
The relation between Srivijaya and the
Decline of the Srivijaya empire and conflicts between its capital and its former vassal states (12th - 13th century)
At times, the Khmer kingdom, the Siamese kingdom, and even the Chola kingdom tried to exert control over the smaller Malay states.
Defeat and conversion to Islamic sultanates in 14th and 15th century
In the 14th century that first
European colonisation and modern era (16th century - present day)
Colonisation commenced form European colonisation from 16th century and ended in 19th century.
Philippines
Indianised kingdoms in Philippines
- Super kingdoms spanning several present day nations
- Srivijaya empire: a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom also included Luzon and Visayas, rival of Mataram who also ruled Mindanao
- Balitung inscription, spread across Java in southern Indonesia and Sulu/Mindanao in southern Philippines
- Super kingdoms spanning several present day nations
- Luzon
- Around Manila and Pasig riverwere 3 polities which were earlier Hindu-Buddhist, later Islamic and then subsumed and converted to Catholicism by Spanish in 16th century
- Namayan polity was confederation of barangays
- Maynila (historical entity)
- Kingdom of Maynila
- Lakan Dularuled Tondo. Rajah Sulayman was one of three kings that ruled parts of present-day Manila, and fought against the Spanish Empire's colonisation of the Philippines
- Tondo (Historical State)on Pasig river near Manila
- Lakan Dula, was a raja who was cousin of Rajah Sulayman and Rajah Matanda
- Laguna Copperplate Inscription, earliest known written document found in the Philippines, in Indianized Kawi script with Sanskrit loanwords
- Ma-i Buddhist kingdom of Mindoro island, from before 10th century till 14th century
- Sandao neighboring vassal-state of Ma-i in Palawan
- Pulilu another vassal-state of Ma-i but located in Quezon Province
- 1406–1576 Caboloan,[105] was a sovereign pre-colonial Philippine polity located in the fertile Agno River basin and delta, with Binalatongan as the capital.[106] The polity of Pangasinan sent emissaries to China in 1406–1411.[107]
- Around Manila and
- Luzon
- Visayas
- Rajahnate of Cebu at Singhapala (Mabolo in Cebu city on Mahinga creej) capital city in southern Cebu island was a Hindu kingdom founded by Sri Lumay or Rajamuda Lumaya, a minor prince of the Chola dynasty of Tamilakam which occupied Sumatra. He was sent by the Chola Emperor to establish a base for expeditionary forces, but he rebelled and established his own independent rajahnate.[108]Subsumed by Spanish in 16th century.
- King Sri Lumay was half Tamil and half Malay, noted for his strict policies in defending against Moro Muslim raiders and slavers from Mindanao. His use of scorched earth tactics to repel invaders gave rise to the name Kang Sri Lumayng Sugbu (literally "that of Sri Lumay's great fire") to the town, which was later shortened to Sugbu ("scorched earth").
- Sri Bantug, king and successor son of Sri Lumay
- Rajah Humabon, king and successor son of Sri Batung
- Battle of Mactan on 27 April 1521 between Rajah Humabon and Ferdinand Magellan in which Lapulapu fought on side of Rajah, resulting in the death of Ferdinand Magellan.
- Lapulapu, warrior under Rajah Humabon, Lapulapu fought Spanish[clarification needed]
- Ferdinand Magellan, Portuguese explorer on hired by Spanish empire
- Rajah Tupas (Sri Tupas), nephew and successor of Rajah Humabon, last to rule the kingdom before subsumed by Spanish Miguel López de Legazpi in the battle of Cebu during 1565.
- Caste system: Below the rulers were the .
- A crude Buddhist medallion and a copper statue of a Hindu Deity, Ganesha, has been found by Henry Otley Beyer in 1921 in ancient sites in Puerto Princesa, Palawan and in Mactan, Cebu.[109] The crudeness of the artifacts indicates they are of local reproduction. Unfortunately, these icons were destroyed during World War II. However, black and white photographs of these icons survive.
- Panay island was a supra-baranganic polity from 14th century till 16th century until subsumed by Spanish, were migrants from North Sumatra in Indonesia where they were rulers of Buddhist Srivihayan "kingdom of Pannai" (ruled 10 to 14th century) which was defeated by Majapahit.
- Mindanao
- Rajahnate of Butuan in northeast Mindanao, a Hindu kingdom that existed earlier than the 10th century. According to researcher Eric Casino, its first King who was named Rajah Kiling was not a native Filipino and was in fact from India as Kiling is the local term for Indians. In nearby Malaysia the similarly worded Kelingmeans an immigrant from India. Butuan flourished until being subsumed by the Spanish in 16th century
- Rajahnate of Cholasurname.
- Mount Diwata: named after diwata concept of Philippines based on the devata deity concept of Hinduism
- Kingdom of Kumalarang in Basilan, a kingdom established by Yakans whose ancestors came from the Champa Civilization in central Vietnam, it subsisted as a vassal-state to the Sulu Sultanate
- Sultanates of Lanao of Muslims in Maguindanao in northwestern Mindanao from 15th century till present day
- Sultanate of Maguindanao in Cotabato in far west Mindanao from split from Srivijaya Hindu ancestors in 16th century and ruled till early 20th century, originally converted by sultan of Johor in 16th century but maintained informal kinship with Hindu siblings who are now likely Christians
- Sultanate of Sulu in southwestern Mindanao, established in 1405 by a Johore-born Muslim explorer, gained independence from the Bruneian Empire in 1578 and lasted till 1986. It also covered the area in northeastern side of Borneo, stretching from Marudu Bay to Tepian Durian in present-day Kalimantan.
- Lupah Su sultanate, predecessor Islamic state before the establishment of Sultanate of Sulu.[110]
- Maimbung principality: Hindu polity, predecessor of Lupah Su Muslim sultanate. sri pada, which symbolises authority.[111]The Principality was instituted and governed using the system of rajahs. Sipad the Older was succeeded by Sipad the Younger.
- Visayas
Indians in Philippines during colonial era
- 1762–1764 British Manila
- Anglo-Spanish War (1761–63)
- Rizal: historic colonial era settlement of escaped Indians sepoysof British East India Company
- Indian Filipino: Filipino citizens with part or whole Indian blood
Key Indianised Hindu-Buddhist artifacts found in Philippines
- Luzon
- Laguna Copperplate Inscription in Luzon, earliest known written document found in the Philippines, in Indianized Kawi script with Sanskrit loanwords
- Palawan
- Visayas
- The crudeness of the artifacts indicates they are of local reproduction. Unfortunately, these icons were destroyed during World War II. However, black and white photographs of these icons survive.
- Mindanao
- Kingdom of Butuan in northeast Mindanao is a golden statue that was found in Agusan del Surin northeast Mindanao.
Singapore
The Greco-Roman astronomer
In 1025 CE,
The
Hindu-Buddhist kingdom (? - ~1511)
The name
In 1320, the
Sometime in its history, the name of Temasek was changed to Singapura. The
Different versions of its history are told in Portuguese sources, suggesting that Temasek was a Siamese vassal whose ruler was killed by
By the 14th century, the empire of
Islamic sultanate (1511 - 1613)
The Malacca Sultanate extended its authority over the island and Singapore became a part of the Malacca Sultanate.
British colony and modern era (19th century - present)
The Portuguese however destroyed the settlement in Singapore in 1613, and the island sank into obscurity for the next two centuries.[134][135]
Thailand
Propagation of Buddhism in Thailand by emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE)
Historically, the cultural and economic interaction between the two countries can be traced to roughly around the 6th century B.C. The single most significant cultural contribution of India, for which Thailand is greatly indebted to India, is
Sukhothai period: Settlement of Indian traders and Brahmins in Thailand (1275–1350)
The Indians who moved into Thailand in the
The Coronation of the Thai monarch are practiced more or less in its original form even up to the present reign. The Thai idea that the king is a reincarnation of the Hindu deity Vishnu was adopted from Indian tradition. (Though this belief no longer exists today, the tradition to call each Thai king of the present Chakri dynasty Rama (Rama is an incarnation of Vishnu) with an ordinal number, such as Rama I, Rama II etc. is still in practice.)
Ayutthaya period: Settlement of more Indian Tamil traders in Thailand (1350–1767 CE)
In the
Later migration of Indians to Thailand (1855 CE - present day)
After the year 1855, the Tamils who migrated to Thailand can be classified into three groups according to the religion they believed in, namely, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.
Indian cultural influence on Thailand
Dance
Thai literature and drama draws great inspiration from Indian arts and legend. The Hindu epic of Ramayana is as popular in Thailand as it is in India. Thailand has adapted the Ramayana to suit the Thai lifestyle in the past and has come up with its own version of the Ramayana, namely, the Ramakien.
Two of the most popular classical dances the Khon, performed by men wearing ferocious masks, and the Lakhon (Lakhon nai, Lakhon chatri and Lakhon nok), performed by women who play both male and female roles draws inspiration primarily from the Ramakien. Percussion instruments and Piphat, a type of woodwind accompany the dance.[136]
In addition, there are shadow play called nang talung in Thai. This is a show in which shadows of pieces of cow or water buffalo hide cut to represent human figures with movable arms and legs are thrown on a screen for the entertainment of spectators. In South India, this kind of show is called Bommalattam.
Language
Thai language too bears close affinity with Sanskrit and Dravidian languages. An indication of the close linguistic affiliation between India and Thailand is found in common Thai words like Ratha Mantri, Vidhya, Samuthra, Karuna, Gulab, Prannee etc. which are almost identical to their Indian counterparts. Thai language basically consists of monosyllabic words that are individually complete in meaning. His Majesty King Ram Khamhaeng the Great created the Thai alphabet in 1283. He modeled it on the ancient Indian alphabets of Sanskrit and Pali through the medium of the old Khmer characters. Like most world languages, the Thai language is a complicated mixture derived from several sources. Many Thai words used today were derived from Pali, Sanskrit, Khmer, Malay, English and Chinese.[136]
Religious ceremonies and festivals
Several Thai ceremonies have been adopted from Indian tradition. These include ceremonies related to ordination, marriage, merit making and cremation. Though the Lord Buddha is the prime inspiration of Thailand, Brahma and other Hindu deities are widely worshipped among the Thais, due in part to the popularity of the Hindu ceremonial rites, which are used especially for royal ceremonies.
(1) The
(2) The Royal Ploughing Ceremony, which is officiated by H.M. the king at Sanam Luang in May every year with pomp. Originally a Brahmanic rite, it was adopted to mark the beginning of the farming season as also to bless all farmers with fertility for the year.
(3) The Royal Ceremony for preparing Celestial Rice or Khao thip which was said to be originally prepared by celestial beings in honor of God Indra. A portion of the celestial rice is offered to monks while the remainder was divided in varying quantities among the royal family, courtiers and household members. The making of the ambrosial dish has come to a natural end since custom demanded that virgins alone should perform the preparation and stirring of celestial rice.
(4) The Kathina Ceremony or the period during which Buddhist monks receive new robes, which generally falls in the months of October- November.
(5)
(6) Songkran Festival: Songkran day marks Thai New Year day. "Songkran" signifies the sun's move into the first house of the zodiac. It is similar to Indian Holi and Makar Sankranti.
(7) Visakha Puja Day which is considered as the greatest Buddhist holy day as it commemorates the birth, enlightenment and death of the Lord Buddha.
Other famous ceremonial holy days include Magha Puja day, in February and Asalha Puja day in July which commemorates the day on which Lord Buddha delivered the First Sermon to his five disciples, namely, Konthanya, Vassapa, Bhattiya, Mahanama and Assashi at Esipatanamaruekathayawan (Isipatana forest at Sarnath in India) and there explained his concept of the Four Noble Truths (Ariyasai).[136]
Hindu astrology
Hindu astrology still has a great impact on several important stages of Thai life. Thai people still seek advice from knowledgeable Buddhist monks or Brahman astrologers about the auspicious or inauspicious days for conducting or abstaining from ceremonies for moving house or getting married.
Influence of Ayurveda on Thai traditional medicine and massage
According to the Thai monk Venerable
Influence of Indian cuisine and spices on Thai cuisine
Thai monk Buddhadasa Bhikku's pointed out that Thai cuisine too was influenced by Indian cuisine. He wrote that Thai people learned how to use spices in their food in various ways from Indians.[136]
Vietnam
Early Chinese vassal states
At the eastern extremity of mainland Southeast Asia, northern
Establishment of Indianised Hindu kingdom of Champa by Indonesian rulers (10th century -)
In south-central Vietnam the Chams, a people of Indonesian stock, established the Hinduised kingdom of
Influence of Indian-origin Buddhism on Vietnam via Chinese culture
Vietnam, or then known as
See also
- Spread of Indian influence
- Greater India
- Indosphere
- Buddhism in Southeast Asia
- Hinduism in Southeast Asia
- Indianization of Southeast Asia
- Trading routes
- Other related
- List of Southeast Asian leaders
- Southeast Asian Games
- Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
- Tiger Cub Economies
Further reading
- ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1.
- Lokesh, Chandra, & International Academy of Indian Culture. (2000). Society and culture of Southeast Asia: Continuities and changes. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan.
- R. C. Majumdar, Study of Sanskrit in South-East Asia
- ISBN 81-7018-046-5.
- R. C. Majumdar, Champa, Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East, Vol.I, Lahore, 1927. ISBN 0-8364-2802-1
- R. C. Majumdar, Suvarnadvipa, Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East, Vol.II, Calcutta,
- R. C. Majumdar, Kambuja Desa Or An Ancient Hindu Colony In Cambodia, Madras, 1944
- R. C. Majumdar, Hindu Colonies in the Far East, Calcutta, 1944, ISBN 99910-0-001-1Ancient Indian colonisation in South-East Asia.
- R. C. Majumdar, History of the Hindu Colonization and Hindu Culture in South-East Asia
- Daigorō Chihara (1996). Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-10512-3.
- K.P. Rao, Early Trade and Contacts between South India and Southeast Asia (300 B.C.-A.D. 200), East and West Vol. 51, No. 3/4 (December 2001), pp. 385–394
Notes
- ^ Not to be confused with the Indian state of the same name.
References
- OCLC 57054139.
- ISBN 978-81-206-0772-9.
- ISBN 978-81-206-0772-9.
It has been further proved that not only linguistic but also certain cultural and political facts of ancient India, can be explained by Austroasiatic (Mon-Khmer) elements.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-58839-524-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-415-10054-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-319-33822-4.
- ^ Blench, Roger (2004). "Fruits and arboriculture in the Indo-Pacific region". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 24 (The Taipei Papers (Volume 2)): 31–50.
- ^ a b c Chakravarti (1930)
- ^ a b Shaffer, 309
- ^ a b c Gombrich 1995, p. 10.
- ^ a b Strong 1995, p. 143.
- ^ Guruge, Unresolved 1995, p. 50.
- ^ Guruge, Unresolved 1995, p. 51.
- ^ Gombrich 1995, p. 11.
- ^ Gombrich 1995, pp. 11–12.
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Works cited
- ISBN 978-955-24-0065-0. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
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External links
- Topography of Southeast Asia in detail (PDF)
- Southeast Asian Archive at the University of California, Irvine.
- "Documenting the Southeast Asian Refugee Experience", exhibit at the University of California, Irvine, Library.
- Southeast Asia Visions, a collection of historical travel narratives Cornell University Library Digital Collection
- www.southeastasia.org Official website of the ASEAN Tourism Association
- Southeast Asia Time Lapse Video Southeast Asia Time Lapse Video
- Art of Island Southeast Asia, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art
- A Short History of South East Asia [needs update]