Geography of Indonesia
Continent | Asia and Oceania |
---|---|
Region | Southeast Asia |
Coordinates | 5°00′00″S 120°00′00″E / 5.000°S 120.000°E / -5.000; 120.000 |
Area | Ranked 14th |
• Total | 1,904,569[1] km2 (735,358 sq mi) |
• Land | 23.62% |
• Water | 76.38% |
Coastline | 54,720 km (34,000 mi) |
Borders | Malaysia: 2,019 km (1,255 mi) Papua New Guinea: 824 km (512 mi) East Timor: 253 km (157 mi) |
Highest point | Puncak Jaya (Carstensz Pyramid) 4,884 m (16,024 ft) |
Lowest point | Sea level 0 m (0 ft) |
Longest river | Kapuas River 1,143 km (710 mi) |
Largest lake | Lake Toba 1,130 km2 (436 sq mi) |
Climate | Mostly tropical rainforest (Af), Southeastern part is predominantly tropical savanna (Aw), while some parts of Java and Sulawesi are tropical monsoon (Am) |
Terrain | Plain in most part of Kalimantan, southern New Guinea, eastern Sumatra and northern Java; Rugged, volcanic topography in Sulawesi, western Sumatra, southern Java, Lesser Sunda Islands and Maluku Islands; Rugged mountains in central, northwestern New Guinea and northern Kalimantan |
Natural resources | Arable land, coal, petroleum, natural gas, timber, copper, lead, phosphates, uranium, bauxite, gold, iron, mercury, nickel, silver |
Natural hazards | Tsunamis; volcanoes; earthquake activity except in central part; tropical cyclones along the Indian coasts; mud slides in Java; flooding |
Environmental issues | Severe deforestation, air pollution resulting in acid rain, river pollution |
Exclusive economic zone | 6,159,032 km2 (2,378,016 sq mi) |
Indonesia is an archipelagic country located in Southeast Asia and Oceania, lying between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. It is located in a strategic location astride or along major sea lanes connecting East Asia, South Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world.[2] Indonesia's various regional cultures have been shaped—although not specifically determined—by centuries of complex interactions with its physical environment.
Overview
Indonesia is an archipelagic country extending about 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south.
Indonesia has total land area of 1,904,569 square kilometres (735,358 sq mi), including 93,000 square kilometres (35,908 sq mi) of inland seas (straits, bays, and other bodies of water). This makes it the largest island country in the world.[2] The additional surrounding sea areas bring Indonesia's generally recognised territory (land and sea) to about 5 million km2. The government claims an exclusive economic zone of 6,159,032 km2 (2,378,016 sq mi). This brings the total area to about 7.9 million km2.[5][6]
Indonesia is a transcontinental country, where its territory consisted of islands geologically considered as part of either Asia or Australia. During the Pleistocene, the Greater Sunda Islands were connected to the Asian mainland while New Guinea was connected to Australia.[7][8] Karimata Strait, Java Sea and Arafura Sea were formed as the sea level rose at the end of the Pleistocene.
Geology
Sulawesi is an island lies on three separate plates, the
Nusa Tenggara or Lesser Sunda Islands consists of two strings of islands stretching eastward from Bali toward southern Maluku. The inner arc of Nusa Tenggara is a continuation of the Alpide belt chain of mountains and volcanoes extending from Sumatra through Java, Bali, and Flores, and trailing off in the volcanic Banda Islands, which along with the Kai Islands and the Tanimbar Islands and other small islands in the Banda Sea are typical examples of the Wallacea mixture of Asian and Australasian plant and animal life.[12] The outer arc of Nusa Tenggara is a geological extension of the chain of islands west of Sumatra that includes Nias, Mentawai, and Enggano. This chain resurfaces in Nusa Tenggara in the ruggedly mountainous islands of Sumba and Timor.
The Maluku Islands (or Moluccas) are geologically among the most complex of the Indonesian islands, consisted of four different tectonic plates. They are located in the northeast sector of the archipelago, bounded by the Philippine Sea to the north, Papua to the east, and Nusa Tenggara to the southwest. The largest of these islands include
Tectonism and volcanism
Indonesia has relatively high tectonic and volcanic activities. It lies on the convergence between the Eurasian, Indo-Australian, Pacific, and Philippine Sea Plate. The Sunda megathrust is a 5,500 km long fault located off southern coasts of Sumatra, Java and Lesser Sunda Islands, where the Indo-Australian Plate is thrusting northeastward towards the subducting Sunda Plate. Tectonic movement in this fault is responsible for the creation of the Sunda Trench, and mountain ranges across Sumatra, Java, and the Lesser Sunda Islands.[26] Many great earthquakes occurred in the vicinity of the fault, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.[27] Mount Merapi, located in the Java portion of the megathrust, is the most active volcano in Indonesia and is designated as one of world's Decade Volcanoes due to the hazard it poses to the surrounding populated areas.[28]
The northern part of Sulawesi and Maluku Islands lie on the convergence of Sunda Plate and
Ecology
Borneo is the third largest island in the world and the native vegetation was mostly
A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 14,416km² of tidal flats in Indonesia, ranking it 1st in the world in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there. [36] Another global analysis also estimated that Indonesia experienced the greatest total tidal wetland change (36% of global net change including mangroves, tidal flats, and tidal marshes) between 1999-2019 with a net loss of 1,426 km2 (551 sq mi). [37]
Time zones
Indonesia is divided into three time zones:
- Western Indonesian Time/WIT (Indonesian: Waktu Indonesia Barat/WIB) (UTC+7)
- WIB is observed in islands of Java, provinces of West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan.
- WIB is observed in islands of
- Central Indonesian Time/CIT (Waktu Indonesia Tengah/WITA) (UTC+8)
- WITA is observed in islands of Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, provinces of East Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, and North Kalimantan.
- Eastern Indonesian Time/EIT (Waktu Indonesia Timur/WIT) (UTC+9).
- WIT is observed in provinces of .
Climate
Lying along the equator, Indonesia's climate tends to be relatively even year-round. Indonesia has two seasons—a wet season and a dry season—with no extremes of summer or winter. For most of Indonesia, the dry season falls between May and October while the wet season between November and April.
Some regions, such as Kalimantan and Sumatra, experience only slight differences in rainfall and temperature between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa Tenggara, experience far more pronounced differences with droughts in the dry season, and floods in the wet. Rainfall in Indonesia is plentiful, particularly in west Sumatra, northwest Kalimantan, west Java, and western New Guinea.
Parts of Sulawesi and some islands closer to Australia, such as Sumba and Timor, are drier, however, these are exceptions. The almost uniformly warm waters that make up 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that temperatures on land remain fairly constant. The coastal plains averaging 28 °C (82.4 °F), the inland and mountain areas averaging 26 °C (78.8 °F), and the higher mountain regions, 23 °C (73.4 °F). The area's relative humidity ranges between 70 and 90%.
Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with monsoons usually blowing in from the south and east in June through October and from the northwest in November through March. Typhoons and large scale storms pose little hazard to mariners in Indonesia waters; the major danger comes from swift currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits.
Indonesia's climate is almost entirely tropical, dominated by the tropical rainforest climate found in every major island of Indonesia, followed by the tropical monsoon climate that predominantly lies along Java's coastal north, Sulawesi's coastal south and east, and Bali, and finally the tropical savanna climate, found in isolated locations of Central Java, lowland East Java, coastal southern Papua and smaller islands to the east of Lombok.
However, cooler climate types do exist in mountainous regions of Indonesia 1,300–1,500 metres above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) prevail in highland areas with fairly uniform precipitation year-round, adjacent to rainforest climates, while the subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb) exist in highland areas with a more pronounced dry season, adjacent to tropical monsoon and savanna climates.
Above 3000 metres is where cold, subpolar climates dominate and where frost and occasional snow become more commonplace. The subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen Cfc), existing between 3,000 and 3,500 metres, can be found on the mountain slopes of Indonesia's highest peaks, and serves as a transition between oceanic climates and tundra climates. Tundra climates (Köppen ET), are found anywhere above 3500 metres on the highest peaks of Indonesia, including the permanently snow-capped peaks in Papua. In this climate regime, average monthly temperatures are all below 10 °C, and monthly precipitation is uniform.
Environmental issues
Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialisation present serious
Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases.
In 1970, 15% of Indonesians lived in cities compared to over 30% today, and this increases pressure on the urban environment. Industrial pollution is increasing, particularly in Java, and the increasing affluence of the growing middle class drives a rapid increase in the number of motor vehicles and associated emissions. Garbage and waste water services are being placed under increasing pressure. Reliance on septic systems or effluent disposal in open canals and river systems remains the norm, and is a major polluter of water resources. Very few Indonesians have access to safe drinking water and must boil water before use.
The geographical resources of the Indonesian archipelago have been exploited in ways that fall into consistent social and historical patterns. One cultural pattern consists of the formerly Indianized, rice-growing peasants in the valleys and plains of Sumatra, Java, and Bali, another cultural complex is composed of the largely Islamic coastal commercial sector, a third, more marginal sector consists of the upland forest farming communities which exist by means of subsistence swidden agriculture. To some degree, these patterns can be linked to the geographical resources themselves, with abundant shoreline, generally calm seas, and steady winds favouring the use of sailing vessels, and fertile valleys and plains—at least in the Greater Sunda Islands—permitting irrigated rice farming. The heavily forested, mountainous interior hinders overland communication by road or river, but fosters slash-and-burn agriculture.
Statistics
Area:
total land area: 1,904,569 km2 (land: 1,811,569 km2 (699450 mi2),
inland water: 93,000 km2) (35,907 mi2)
Area - comparative:
- Slightly smaller than Nunavut, Canada
- Slightly larger than combined area of Alaska and New England
- More than 27 times larger than Republic of Ireland
- Territorial area: 5,193,250 km2[41]
- Total area (including exclusive economic zone): 8,063,601 km2
Land boundaries:
- Total: 3,096 kilometres (1,924 mi)
- Border countries: Malaysia 2,019 kilometres (1,255 mi), Papua New Guinea 824 kilometres (512 mi), East Timor 253 kilometres (157 mi)
- Other nearby countries: Australia, Brunei, Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Palau, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam
Coastline: 54,720 km (34,000 mi)
Maritime claims: measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
territorial sea: 12 nmi (13.8 mi; 22.2 km)
exclusive economic zone: 6,159,032 km2 (2,378,016 sq mi) with 200 nmi (230.2 mi; 370.4 km)
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Sea level at 0 m (sea surface level); southern portion of the Philippine Trench, east of Miangas at −9,125 metres (−29,938 ft)
highest point: Puncak Jaya (also known as Carstensz Pyramid) 4,884 m
Land use:
arable land: 12.97%
permanent crops: 12.14%
other: 74.88% (2013)
Irrigated land: 67,220 km2 (2005) (25,953 mi2)
Total renewable water resources: 2,019 km3 (2011) (484 mi3)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):
total: 113.3 km3/yr (11%/19%/71%)
per capita: 517.3 m3/yr (2005)
Natural resources:
See also
References
- ^ a b CIA World Factbook
- ^ a b "Island Countries of the World". WorldAtlas.com. Archived from the original on 7 December 2017. Retrieved 10 August 2019.
- ISBN 9780844407906.
- ^ "Hanya ada 13.466 Pulau di Indonesia". National Geographic Indonesia (in Indonesian). 8 February 2012.
- ISBN 9789041123381.
- ISBN 9780844407906.
- ISBN 9781402038808.
- ISBN 9781862396913.
- ISBN 9781780465791.
- ISBN 9780080287324.
- ISBN 9781897799529.
- ^ "Banda Sea Islands moist deciduous forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.. Worldwildlife.org. Retrieved on 29 September 2010.
- ^ "Terrestrial Ecoregions - Buru rain forests (AA0104)". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.. Worldwildlife.org. Retrieved on 29 September 2010.
- ^ Carter, D. J., Audley-Charles, M. G. & Barber, A. J. Stratigraphical analysis of island arc-continental margin collision in eastern Indonesia. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 132, 179-189 (1976).
- ^ Hamilton, W. Tectonics of the Indonesian Region Vol. 1078 (US Geol. Soc. Prof. Pap., 1979).
- ISBN 9780080494654.
- ^ "Biggest exposed fault on earth found in eastern Indonesia". The Jakarta Post. 29 November 2016. Retrieved 17 February 2018.
- ^ "Big Bank Shoals of the Timor Sea: An environmental resource atlas". Australian Institute of Marine Science. 2001. Archived from the original on 8 September 2006. Retrieved 28 August 2006.
- ^ Wirantaprawira, Dr Willy (2003). "Republik Indonesia". Dr Willy Wirantaprawira. Archived from the original on 18 October 2006. Retrieved 28 August 2006.
- ^ Johnson, David Peter (2004). The Geology of Australia. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. p. 12.
- ^ MG Audley-Charles, 1986, "Timor–Tanimbar Trough: the foreland basin of the evolving Banda orogen", Spec. Publs int. Ass. Sediment, 8:91–102
- ISBN 9780813723723.
- ^ Focus on Indonesia. Information Division, Embassy of Indonesia. 1976.
- ISBN 1-74059-154-2.
- ^ "Volcanoes of Indonesia". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 25 March 2007.
- ISBN 9789814345194.
- ISBN 9781862399662.
- ISBN 9783764370442.
- ISBN 9781862392588.
- ISBN 9781897799529.
- ISBN 9781862399662.
- ^ "7.4 magnitude earthquake near Manokwari, West Papua, Indonesia : January 03, 2009 22:33". earthquaketrack.com. Retrieved 6 February 2018.
- ^ "Terrestrial Ecoregions - Halmahera rain forests (AA0106)". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.. Worldwildlife.org. Retrieved on 29 September 2010.
- ^ "Terrestrial Ecoregions - Central Range montane rain forests (AA0105)". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.. Worldwildlife.org. Retrieved on 29 September 2010.
- ^ "Terrestrial Ecoregions - Biak-Numfoor rain forests (AA0103)". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.. Worldwildlife.org. Retrieved on 29 September 2010.
- S2CID 56481043.
- S2CID 248749118.
- ^ a b Jason R. Miller (30 January 1997). "Deforestation in Indonesia and the Orangutan Population". TED Case Studies. Archived from the original on 29 February 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2007.
- ^ Higgins, Andrew (19 November 2009). "A climate threat, rising from the soil". The Washington Post. Retrieved 11 December 2009.
- ^ Massicot, Paul. "Animal Info – Indonesia". Animal Info – Information on Endangered Mammals. Retrieved 14 August 2007.
- ^ Chris Carl Forward (2009). "Archipelagic Sea-Lanes in Indonesia – Their legality in International Law". Australian and New Zealand Maritime Law Journal. 23 (2). Archived from the original on 21 February 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
External links
- Digital Atlas of Indonesian History by Robert Cribb from 17th century and earlier
- (in English and French)"Map of a Part of China, the Philippine Islands, the Isles of Sunda, the Moluccas, the Papuans" features a map of Indonesia from around 1760
- This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Indonesia: A Country Study. Federal Research Division.
- This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook. CIA.
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