History of Adjara

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The history of Adjara, a region in the South Caucasus, stretches from its initial Stone Age settlement through to its present day status as Georgia's Autonomous Republic of Adjara.

Ancient and medieval eras

Archaeological evidence indicates the territory of Adjara has been inhabited since the

In 1547, the province of Adjara fell to Ottoman raids, leading to the capture of Batumi. In 1564, Prince Rostom Gurieli of Guria managed to liberate the region, but Turkish rule was reestablished in 1582. Control changed hands again in 1609 when Prince Mamia Gurieli took control of Batumi, but by 1614, Guria lost the province to the Ottomans. Subsequently, the area was divided into two sanjaks under the authority of the Pasha of Childir (Akhaltsikhe). Many Adjarians sought refuge elsewhere in Georgia, while those who remained were converted to Islam.

Direct Ottoman control over Adjara was limited, and local Muslim Georgian nobility, including the

Adjara, known as Adjaristan during Turkish rule, was ceded to the

In the face of Russian oppression of Islam, a considerable number of Muslims sought refuge in Turkey through a process of immigration known as Muhajiroba. The Ottoman Empire financially supported an insurgent organization called The Avengers which made attempts on the lives of Russian officers, officials, and Adjarian collaborators.

Following the

During Russian rule, the region also witnessed social unrest during the Russian Revolution of 1905, with numerous strikes and violent crackdowns in Batum Oblast.

During World War I, Adjarian Muhajir, who had emigrated to Turkey, formed a division within the Turkish army. The Ottoman 37th Caucasian Division entered Batum following the evacuation of Russian forces on April 14, 1918.

In 1915, as part of the ongoing conflict with the Ottoman Empire, the Russian administration began deporting "refractory" Russian-subject Muslims from the Batumi region to interior Russian provinces. Georgian intellectuals expressed their protests, asserting that those deported were not Turks but Adjarians who were "Georgian despite their Muslim religion, and therefore loyal Russians."^{[citation needed]} A thorough investigation, presided over by Grand Duke Georgi Mikhailovich, supported the Adjarians' loyalty, attributing allegations of disloyalty to Cossacks and Armenians who instigated confrontations with local Muslims.^{[citation needed]} Eventually, Grand Duke Nikolay Nikolaevich met with Adjarian leaders and rewarded them for their loyalty. The investigation concluded on January 26, 1918, following the Russian Revolution of 1917.^[5]

British occupation

On January 12, 1919, British expeditionary forces initiated their landing at Batumi to replace the Turkish troops. Subsequently, the Council for Batum Region, under the leadership of the Russian cadet P. Maslov, was established as a provisional governing authority for Adjara from December 21, 1918, until April 28, 1919.

During this period, the Committee of the Liberation of Muslim Georgia, led by

The withdrawal of British troops from the Caucasus began on August 15, 1919. The divisional headquarters at Batum then transferred authority to Major General W. J. N. Cooke-Collis, the military governor of the region.^{[citation needed]} Subsequently, on March 4, 1920, Cooke-Collis assumed command of the Inter-Allied Force stationed at Batum. However, by July 14, 1920, this force was withdrawn entirely from the city.^{[citation needed]}

Democratic Republic of Georgia

The British administration ceded the region to the Democratic Republic of Georgia on July 20, 1920. Subsequently, Bolsheviks and Russian agents orchestrated sabotage and terrorist acts.^[6] In response, the Georgian government granted Adjara an autonomous status in the republic's inaugural constitution, initially drafted in July 1920 and formally adopted during the Red Army invasion of Georgia on February 21, 1921.^[7]

Abkhazeti (district of Stockholm), Georgian Muslim district (district of Batumi), and Zakatala (district of Zakatala), which are integral parts of the Georgian Republic, shall enjoy the autonomy in the administration of their affairs.

— Article 107, Georgian constitution

Amidst the Soviet invasion of Georgia, Turkish forces occupied Batumi on March 11, 1921, but were expelled seven days later by Georgian troops under the leadership of General Giorgi Mazniashvili. On March 19, Soviet rule was declared in Batumi. The territorial status of Adjara was acknowledged as part of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic in the Soviet-Turkish Treaty of Kars, signed on March 16, 1921.

Soviet rule

The Adjarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was declared by the Soviet government on July 16, 1921, following the region's cession from Turkey to the Bolsheviks. The cession was conditioned on the promise of autonomy for the region and particularly for Adjarian Muslims. The Treaty of Kars also stipulated that Turkey would have unobstructed access to the port of Batumi.^[8]

That Turkey be assured free transit through the port of Batum for commodities and all materials destined for, or originating in Turkey, without customs duties and charges, and with the right for Turkey to utilize the port of Batum without special charges.

— Article VI.2, Treaty of Kars

The Adjarian ASSR was the only Soviet autonomy established on religious rather than ethnic grounds.

After Georgia's first democratic parliamentary and presidential elections, President Zviad Gamsakhurdia appointed Aslan Abashidze as the head of Adjara's Supreme Council on March 15, 1991, with the hope that Abashidze would support the cancellation of the region's autonomous status. However, when Gamsakhurdia proposed the abolition of Adjarian autonomy, Abashidze called on the Adjarians, especially the Muslims in the area, to protest against it, leading to tensions with the central Georgian authorities.^{[citation needed]}

On April 22, 1991, pro-Abashidze protesters stormed administrative buildings in central Batumi, demanding the immediate resignation of several officials. Gamsakhurdia, facing internal issues in Tbilisi, chose not to interfere in the events in Adjara. During the turmoil, Nodar Imnadze, Abashidze's deputy chairman of the Supreme Soviet and a prominent supporter of Gamsakhurdia in Adjara, was killed under highly controversial circumstances. In Batumi's^[

Under Abashidze's control, Adjara experienced relative political stability and economic growth during the Georgian Civil War.^{[citation needed]} Despite significant foreign investments and numerous financial projects, most Adjarians remained impoverished. On October 24, 1997, Adjara became a full member of the Assembly of European Regions (AER).

Relations between the central and regional authorities were strained, with the Adjarian leadership often refusing to pay taxes to the central budget. Abashidze took control of customs, Batumi seaport, and other strategic assets while establishing his semi-official armed units and ultimately controlling the Batumi-based 25th Brigade of Georgia's Defense Ministry. The central government criticized Abashidze for his pro-Russian stance and considered the Batumi-based Russian military unit as a base of power for the Adjarian leader.^{[citation needed]}

During his rule from 1992 to 2003, Georgia's ex-president Eduard Shevardnadze made several attempts to reconcile with Abashidze, resulting in a compromise where Adjara obtained a more autonomous status, Abashidze agreed not to run for the presidency of Georgia, and Shevardnadze allowed Abashidze to retain power in Adjara.^[11]

Abashidze's party, the Union of Democratic Revival of Georgia, initially cooperated with Shevardnadze's ruling Union of Citizens of Georgia party in the 1995 parliamentary elections but later broke ties after the polls.

Abashidze's Revival Party had thirty members in the Georgian parliament^[when?] and was seen as a moderate opposition to the central government in Tbilisi. Following the fraudulent elections of 2003 and the subsequent Rose Revolution in Georgia, Abashidze referred to the ouster of Shevardnadze in November 2003 as "a violent coup d'état".^{[citation needed]}

Adjara crisis

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On November 23, 2003, following Shevardnadze's fall, Aslan Abashidze declared a state of emergency in Adjara. Despite this, Adjara participated in the Georgian presidential elections held on January 4, 2004, which were won by Mikheil Saakashvili. Subsequently, President Saakashvili demanded that the Adjarian leader adhere to the Georgian constitution and initiate a disarmament process.

In May 2004, tensions escalated as Abashidze claimed that Georgian forces were preparing to invade the region. In response, his forces demolished bridges that connected Adjara with the rest of Georgia. On May 4, local oppositional demonstrations were dispersed under a state of emergency, but this action only served as a catalyst for even larger demonstrations later in the day. Thousands of people across Adjara gathered in Batumi to demand Abashidze's resignation.

On May 6, the situation reached a turning point when local protesters took control of central Batumi, and Georgian Special Forces entered the region to disarm pro-Abashidze groups. Concurrently, negotiations were held with Russian Foreign Affairs Minister Igor Ivanov. As a result of overnight talks, Mr. Abashidze ultimately resigned from his position and departed the country for Moscow.

Post-Abashidze era

On May 7, 2004, direct Georgian presidential rule was implemented in Adjara, establishing a 20-member Interim Council responsible for governing the Autonomous Republic until fresh local elections could be conducted. Levan Varshalomidze was designated as the Chairman of the Interim Council.

Regional parliamentary elections were held on June 20, in which the party "Victorious Adjara", endorsed by President Saakashvili, secured 28 out of 30 seats in the local legislative body. The remaining two seats were occupied by the Republican Party, former allies of Saakashvili. Allegations of vote-rigging were raised by the Republicans, who obtained less than 15 percent of the vote. On July 20, the Adjarian Supreme Council confirmed Varshalomidze's appointment as the Chairman of the Autonomous Republic's government.

The regional policy pursued by both central and local governments centered around encouraging foreign investments in the area, which prompted an extensive privatization campaign initiation.^[specify]

The Russian military presence in Batumi also posed a significant regional security threat. Following Russia's promise to withdraw from its base at the 1999 Istanbul OSCE summit, prolonged Russia-Georgia negotiations on the subject remained a significant source of tension until the base was eventually vacated in 2008.^{[citation needed]}

See also

• History of Georgia
• History of Batumi

References