History of Moldova
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The history of Moldova can be traced to the 1350s, when the
Prehistory
In 2010,
The question as to why this area did not remain at the forefront of technological and social development lies in the subsequent history of its geographical location. At the end of the mostly peaceful Neolithic period, this area became a highway for invaders from the east moving into Europe. By the time the historical written record begins to cover this area, it has already seen a number of invasions sweep over it, leaving social and political upheaval in their wake. This trend was to continue on a fairly regular basis up until the 20th century. With so much destruction, it was difficult for the residents of this area to recover from each successive invasion before encountering the next.
Antiquity and early Middle Ages
In recorded
Principality of Moldavia
The medieval Principality of
The
Moldova also had rich political relations with Poland. In 1387, the great hospodar of Moldova, Peter I, paid a feudal tribute to the Polish king. For the next one hundred and fifty years, relations between Moldova and Poland were periodically friendly, and occasionally conflict.[8]
The greatest Moldavian personality was prince
Stephen III was succeeded by increasingly weaker princes, and in 1538 Moldavia became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, to which it owed a percentage of the internal revenue, that in time rose to 10%. Moldavia was forbidden to have foreign relations to the detriment of the Ottoman Empire (although at times the country managed to circumvent this interdiction), but was allowed internal autonomy, including sole authority over foreign trade. Turks were legally forbidden to own land or build religious establishments in Moldavia. Prince Vasile Lupu had secured the Moldavian throne in 1634 after a series of complicated intrigues, and managed to hold it for twenty years. Lupu was a capable administrator and a brilliant financier, and soon was the richest man in the Christian East. Judiciously placed gifts kept him on good terms with the Ottoman authorities.[9][10]
In the 18th century, the territory of Moldavia often became a transit or war zone during conflicts between the Ottomans, Austrians, and
Part of the Russian Empire
With the notable exception of
Initially, after being annexed by the Russian Empire, Bessarabia enjoyed a period of local autonomy until 1828. Organized as an imperial district (
At the end of the
In 1870, the institution of
The defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the
Public education was entrusted to the religious establishment of the region, which since 1821 had only Russian archbishops, and later also to the zemstvos.
Under the protection of
After 1812, the newly installed Russian authorities expelled the large
Moldavian Democratic Republic and Union with Romania
After the Russian Revolution of 1905, a Romanian nationalist movement started to develop in Bessarabia. While it received a setback in 1906–1907, the movement re-emerged even stronger in 1917.[30]
To quell the chaos brought about by the
After this, the Council declared the independence of the Moldavian Democratic Republic on February 6 [
The union was recognized by Britain, France and Italy, but not by the Soviet government, which claimed the area as the Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic, and argued the union was made under conditions of Romanian military occupation by a Council that had not been elected by the people of Bessarabia in elections.[43]
Part of Greater Romania
After 1918 Bessarabia was under Romanian jurisdiction for the next 22 years. This fact was recognized in the
The land reform, implemented by Sfatul Țării in 1918–1919, resulted in a rise of a middle class, as 87% of the region's population lived in rural areas. The reform was however marred by the small size of the awarded plots, as well as by preferential allotment of land to politicians and administrative personnel who had supported the political goals of the Romanian government.[40] Generally, urban development and industry were insignificant, and the region remained primarily an agrarian rural region throughout the interwar period.[50] Certain improvements were achieved in the area of education, the literacy rate rising from 15.6% in 1897[51] to 37% by 1930; however, Bessarabia continued to lag behind the rest of the country, the national literacy rate being 60%.[50] During the inter-war period, Romanian authorities also conducted a program of Romanianization that sought to assimilate ethnic minorities throughout the country. The enforcement of this policy was especially pervasive in Bessarabia due to its highly diverse population, and resulted in the closure of minority educational and cultural institutions.[52]
On 1 January 1919 the Municipal Conservatory (the Academy of Music) was created in Chişinău, in 1927 – the Faculty of Theology, in 1934 the subsidiary of the Romanian Institute of social sciences, in 1939 – municipal picture gallery. The
The first
The first society of the Romanian writers in Chișinău was formed in 1920, among the members were
World War II and Soviet era
After the establishment of the Soviet Union in December 1922, the Soviet government moved in 1924 to establish the
In the secret protocol attached to the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact defining the division of the spheres of influence in Eastern Europe, Nazi Germany declared it had no political interest in Bessarabia, in response to the Soviet Union's expression of interest, thereby consigning Bessarabia to the Soviet "sphere". On June 26, 1940, the Soviet government issued an ultimatum to the Romanian minister in Moscow, demanding Romania immediately cede Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Italy and Germany, which needed a stable Romania and access to its oil fields, urged King Carol II to do so. On June 28, Soviet troops crossed the Dniester and occupied Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region.[56]
The Soviet republic created following annexation did not follow Bessarabia's traditional border. The
Under early Soviet rule, deportations of locals to the northern Urals, to Siberia, and Kazakhstan occurred regularly throughout the Stalinist period, with the largest ones on 12–13 June 1941, and 5–6 July 1949, accounting for 19,000 and 35,000 deportees respectively (from MSSR alone).[58] In 1940–1941, ca. 90,000 inhabitants of the annexed territories were subject to political persecutions, such as arrests, deportations, or executions.[59]
By participating in the 1941
By April 1944, successful offensives of the Soviet Army occupied northern Moldavia and Transnistria, and by the end of August 1944 the entire territory was under Soviet control, with Soviet Army units entering Kishinev on 24 August 1944. The Paris peace treaty signed in February 1947 fixed the Romanian-Soviet border to the one established in June 1940.[61][62]
The territory remained part of the Soviet Union after World War II as the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. Soviet Union created the universal educational system, brought high-tech industry and science. Most of these industries were built in Transnistria and around large cities, while in the rest of the republic agriculture was developed. By the late Soviet period, the urban intelligentsia and government officials were dominated mostly by ethnic Moldovans, while Russians and Ukrainians made up most of the technical and engineering specialists.[63]
The conditions imposed during the reestablishment of Soviet rule became the basis of deep resentment toward Soviet authorities, manifested in numerous
Most political and academic positions were given to members of non-Romanian ethnic groups (only 17.5% of the Moldavian SSR's political leaders were ethnic Romanians in 1940).[69][70]
Although Brezhnev and other CPM first secretaries were largely successful in suppressing Romanian irredentism in the 1950s–1980s, Mikhail Gorbachev's administration facilitated the revival of the movement in the region. His policies of glasnost and perestroika created conditions in which nationalistic feelings could be openly expressed and in which the Soviet republics could consider reforms.[71]
In the 1970s and 1980s Moldova received substantial investment from the budget of the USSR to develop industrial, scientific facilities, as well as housing. In 1971 the
Independent Republic of Moldova 1991
Gaining independence
In the climate of Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika and glasnost, national sentiment escalated in the Moldavian SSR in 1988. In 1989, the Popular Front of Moldova was formed as an association of independent cultural and political groups and gained official recognition. The Popular Front organized a number of large demonstrations, which led to the designation of Moldovan as the official language of the MSSR on August 31, 1989, and a return to the Latin alphabet.[73]
However, opposition was growing to the increasingly exclusionary nationalist policies of the Popular Front,[73] especially in Transnistria, where the Yedinstvo-Unitatea (Unity) Intermovement had been formed in 1988 by Slavic minorities,[74] and in the south, where the organization Gagauz Halkı (Gagauz People), formed in November 1989, came to represent the Gagauz, a Turkic-speaking minority there.
The first democratic elections to the Moldavian SSR's
In August 1990, there was a refusal of the increasingly nationalist republican government to grant cultural and territorial autonomy to Gagauzia and Transnistria, two regions populated primarily by ethnic minorities. In response, the
By mid-October 1990, Moldovan nationalist volunteers had been mobilized to be sent to Gagauzia (approximately 30,000 volunteers participated there) and Transnistria.[76] However, negotiations in Moscow between the Gagauz and Transnistrian leadership, and the government of the Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova failed.
In May 1991, the country's official name was changed to the Republic of Moldova (Republica Moldova).[75] The name of the Supreme Soviet also was changed, to the Moldovan Parliament.
During the
The December elections of Stepan Topal and Igor Smirnov as presidents of Gagauzia and Transnistria respectively, and the official dissolution of the Soviet Union at the end of the year, had further increased tensions in Moldova.[78]
Transnistria
Transnistria is the region east of the
As of 2007, the Russian military remains in Transnistria, despite Russia having signed international agreements to withdraw, and against the will of Moldovan government.[79][80] The government of Moldova continues to offer extensive autonomy to Transnistria, while the government of Transnistria demands independence. De jure, Transnistria is internationally recognized as part of Moldova, but de facto, the Moldovan government does not exercise any control over the territory.[81]
Independence: the early years, 1991–2001
On 8 December 1991, Mircea Snegur, an ex-communist reformer, ran an unopposed election for the presidency. On March 2, 1992, the country achieved formal recognition as an independent state at the United Nations.[82]
In 1992, Moldova became involved in a brief conflict against local insurgents in Transnistria, who were aided by the Russian
Starting 1993, Moldova began to distance itself from Romania. The 1994 Constitution of Moldova used the term "Moldovan language" instead of "Romanian" and changed the national anthem to "Limba noastră".
On January 2, 1992, Moldova introduced a
The pro-nationalist governments of prime ministers Mircea Druc (May 25, 1990 – May 28, 1991), and Valeriu Muravschi (May 28, 1991 – July 1, 1992), were followed by a more moderate government of Andrei Sangheli, during which there was a decline of the pro-Romanian nationalist sentiment.[85] After the 1994 elections, Moldovan Parliament adopted measures that distanced Moldova from Romania.[81] The new Moldovan Constitution also provided for autonomy for Transnistria and Gagauzia. On December 23, 1994, the Parliament of Moldova adopted a "Law on the Special Legal Status of Gagauzia", and in 1995 it was constituted.[86]
After winning the presidential elections of 1996, on January 15, 1997,
New governments were formed by
Return of the Communists, 2001–2009
Only 3 of the 31 political parties won more than the 6% of the popular vote required to win seats in parliament in the February 25, 2001 elections. Winning 49.9% of the vote, the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova (reinstituted in 1993 after being outlawed in 1991), gained 71 of the 101 parliament seats, and elected Vladimir Voronin as the country's third president on April 4, 2001. A new government was formed on April 19, 2001, by Vasile Tarlev. The country became the first post-Soviet state where a non-reformed communist party returned to power.[81] In March–April 2002, the opposition Christian-Democratic People's Party organized a mass protest in Chișinău against the plans of the government to fulfill its electoral promise and introduce Russian as the second state language along with its compulsory study in schools.[87] The government annulled these plans.
The relationship between Moldova and Russia deteriorated in November 2003 over a
In the wake of the November 2003 deadlock with Russia, a series of shifts in the external policy of Moldova occurred, targeted at rapprochement with the European Union. In the context of the EU's expansion to the east, Moldova wants to sign the Stability and Association Agreement. It implemented its first three-year action plan within the framework of the
In the March 2005 elections, the Party of the Communists (PCRM) won 46% of the vote, (56 of the 101 seats in the Parliament), the Democratic Moldova Block (BMD) won 28.5% of the vote (34 MPs), and the Christian Democratic People Party (PPCD) won 9.1% (11 MPs). On April 4, 2005, Vladimir Voronin was re-elected as country's president, supported by a part of the opposition, and on April 8, Vasile Tarlev was again appointed head of government.[81] On March 31, 2008, Vasile Tarlev was replaced by Zinaida Greceanîi as head of the government.
Following the parliamentary elections on April 5, 2009, the Communist Party won 49.48% of the votes, followed by the Liberal Party with 13.14% of the votes, the Liberal Democratic Party with 12.43% and the Alliance "Moldova Noastră" with 9.77%. The opposition leaders have protested against the outcome calling it fraudulent and demanded a repeated election. A preliminary report by OSCE observers called the vote generally free and fair. However, one member of the OSCE observation team expressed concerns over that conclusion and said that she and a number of other team members feel that there had been some manipulation, but they were unable to find any proof.[91]
On April 6, 2009, several
Liberal Democrat and Socialist administrations, 2009 to present
An attempt by the new ruling coalition to amend the constitution of Moldova via a referendum in 2010 in order to enable presidential election by popular vote failed due to lack of turnout. The parliamentary election in November 2010 had retained the status quo between the ruling coalition and the communist opposition. On 16 March 2012,[99] parliament elected Nicolae Timofti as president by 62 votes out of 101, with the PCRM boycotting the election, putting an end to a political crisis that had lasted since April 2009. Moldova had no had full-time president, but three acting presidents, since Vladimir Voronin resigned in September 2009.[100][101] In the November 2014 elections the pro-European parties maintained their majority in parliament.[102]
In November 2016, pro-Russia candidate
In November 2020, opposition candidate Maia Sandu won Moldova's presidential election after a run-off vote against the incumbent Igor Dodon. She became the first female President of Moldova.[107]
In July 2021, President Maia Sandu's pro-Western PAS party won a snap election, resulting Parliament confirmed Sandu's nomination of Natalia Gavrilita as the new prime minister.[108]
On 24 May 2022, former president of Moldova, Igor Dodon, was arrested. Dodon, leader of Moldova's main pro-Russian opposition, Socialist Party, was accused of taking bribes. Moldovas's pro-Western and pro-Russian factions became increasingly divided since
On 10 February 2023 President Sandu accepted PM Gavrilita's resignation,[110][111] and installed Dorin Recean in place.[112]
See also
- Bessarabia
- Dissolution of the Soviet Union
- History of Romania
- History of Ukraine
- List of presidents of Moldova
- List of prime ministers of Moldova
- Moldavia
- Politics of Moldova
Notes
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- ^ ISBN 1-892941-86-4.
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- ^ Ion Nistor, Istoria Basarabiei, 4th edition, Cartea moldovenească, Chișinău, 1991, p. 179-189
- ^ Ion Nistor, p.190-191
- ^ Mitrasca, p. 23.
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- ^ Ion Nistor, p. 249-255
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- ^ Ion Nistor, p.197-214
- Dobrudja) nearly 150,000. Colonization brought in numerous Great Russian peasants, and the Russian bureaucracy imported Russian office-holders and professional men; according to the Romanian estimate of 1920, the Great Russians were about 75,000 in number (2.9%), and the Lipovans and Cossacks 59,000 (2.2%); the Little Russians (Ukrainians) came to 254,000 (9.6%). That, plus about 10,000 Poles, brings the total number of Slavs to 545,000 in a population of 2,631,000, or about one-fifth"
- ^ Ion Nistor, Istoria Bassarabiei, Cernăuți, 1921
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- ^ (in Romanian) Corneliu Chirieș, "90 de ani de la Unirea Basarabiei cu România" ("90 Years Since the Union of Bessarabia with Romania") Archived 2009-03-18 at the Wayback Machine, Observator de Bacău, 23 March 2008
- ^ Ion Nistor, Istoria Basarabiei, 4th edition, Chișinău, Cartea moldovenească, 1991, p. 281
- ^ Petre P. Panaitescu, Istoria Românilor, 7th edition, Editura didactică și pedagogică, București, 1990, p. 322
- Pantelimon Halippa, Anatolie Moraru, Testament pentru urmași, München, 1967, reprint Hyperion, Chișinău, 1991, pp. 82–86
- ^ Charles Upson Clark, "Bessarabia", Chapter XIX, New York, 1926, Chapter 19 Archived 2011-02-23 at Wikiwix
- ^ P.Halippa, A.Moraru, Testament pentru urmasi, 2nd edition, Hyperion, Chișinău, 1991, p.85-87
- ^ Cristina Petrescu, "Contrasting/Conflicting Identities:Bessarabians, Romanians, Moldovans" in Nation-Building and Contested Identities, Polirom, 2001, pg. 156
- ^ King, C. The Moldovans: Romania, Russia and the Politics of Culture, Hoover Institution Press, 2000, pg. 35
- ^ (PDF) from the original on 4 January 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
- ^ a b Alberto Basciani, "La Difficile unione. La Bessarabia e la Grande Romania", Aracne, 2007, pg. 118
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- ^ E.S. Lazo, Moldavskaya partiynaya organizatsia v gody stroitelstva sotsializma(1924–1940), Chișinău, Știința, 1981, p. 38
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- ^ a b "6 The august 1991 coup attempt and the transition to independence". unu.edu. Archived from the original on 10 March 2009. Retrieved 4 May 2018.
- ^ Statement by H.E. Mr. Andrei Stratan at the General Debate of the Sixty Second Session of the UN General Assembly, New-York, 1 October 2007 Archived 5 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine: "I would like to reiterate on this occasion the position of the Republic of Moldova according to which the withdrawal of the Russian troops that remain on the Moldovan territory against its will, in conformity with the obligations assumed by the Russian Federation in 1999 in Istanbul, would create the necessary premises for ratifying and applying the Adapted CFE Treaty."
- ^ "Moldovan President Wants Out of Russia's Orbit - Eurasia Daily Monitor". Archived from the original on 2007-12-04. Retrieved 2009-09-01. Jamestown: "Moldovan President wants out of Russia's orbit"
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- ^ OSCE press release: "OSCE Mission to Moldova condemns post-election violence and appeals to all sides for restraint Archived 2009-10-05 at the Wayback Machine"
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- ^ "Moldova's Parliament Backs Ion Chicu as New PM". 14 November 2019. Archived from the original on 4 March 2020. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
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Further reading
- Brezianu, Andrei, and Vlad Spânu. The A to Z of Moldova (Scarecrow Press, 2010).
- Chinn, Jeff, and Steven D. Roper. "Ethnic mobilization and reactive nationalism: The case of Moldova." Nationalities papers 23.2 (1995): 291-325 online.
- King, Charles. The Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and the Politics of Culture (Hoover Institution Press, 2000).
- Lutsevych, Orysia. How to finish a revolution: Civil society and democracy in Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine (Chatham House, 2013).
- Mitrasca, Marcel. Moldova: A Romanian Province Under Russian Rule (Algora, 2002).
- Quinlan, Paul D. "Moldova under Lucinschi." Demokratizatsiya 10.1 (2002): 83–103.
- RAND, Russia’s Hostile Measures: Combating Russian Gray Zone Aggression Against NATO in the Contact, Blunt, and Surge Layers of Competition (2020) online on Transnistria
- Way, Lucan A. "Authoritarian state building and the sources of regime competitiveness in the fourth wave: The cases of Belarus, Moldova, Russia, and Ukraine." World Politics 57.2 (2005): 231–261.
- Way, Lucan A. "Weak states and pluralism: The case of Moldova." East European Politics and Societies 17.03 (2003): 454–482. online Archived 2021-09-21 at the Wayback Machine