History of Slovakia
This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. (February 2021) |
History of Slovakia | |
---|---|
1918–1938 | |
Slovak Soviet Republic | 1919 |
Slovakia during World War II | 1939–1945 |
Slovak Republic | 1939–1945 |
Slovak National Uprising | 1944 |
Slovaks in Czechoslovakia | 1948–1989 |
Slovak Socialist Republic | 1969–1990 |
Velvet Revolution | 1989 |
Post-revolution Czechoslovakia | 1989–1992 |
Dissolution of Czechoslovakia | 1993 |
The history of Slovakia dates back to the findings of ancient human artifacts. This article shows the history of the country from prehistory to the present day.
Prehistory
Discovery of ancient tools made by the
Antiquity
The Celts were the first population in the territory of present-day Slovakia who can be identified on the basis of written sources.[1][2] The first Celtic groups came from the West around 400 BC.[2] Settlements of the La Tène culture indicate that the Celts colonized the lowlands along the river Danube and its tributaries.[2][3] The local population was either subjected by the Celts or withdrew to the mountainous northern territory.[2] New Celtic groups arrived from Northern Italy during the 2nd century BC.[2][3] The Celts initially lived in tiny huts – 4 by 3 metres (13 ft × 10 ft) in size – which either formed small villages or were scattered across the countryside.[3]
Some of the small hill forts which were built in the 1st century BC developed into important local economic and administrative centers.[4] For example, the hill fort at Zemplín was a center of iron-working; glass works were unearthed at Liptovská Mara; and local coins were struck at Bratislava and Liptovská Mara.[5] Coins from Bratislava bore inscriptions like Biatec and Nonnos.[2] The fort at Liptovská Mara was also an important center of the cult of the bearers of the Púchov culture of the Northern Carpathians.[6]
The Romans and the Germanic tribes launched their first invasions against the territories along the Middle Danube in the last decade of the 1st century BC.[7] Roman legions crossed the Danube near Bratislava under the command of Tiberius to fight against the Germanic Quadi in 6 AD, but the local tribes' rebellion in Pannonia forced the Romans to return.[10][11] Taking advantage of internal strifes, the Romans settled a group of Quadi in the lowlands along the Danube between the rivers Morava and Váh in 21, making Vannius their king.[11] The Germans lived in rectangular houses, rather than square ones,[12] and cremated their dead, placing the ashes in an urn.[12]
Although the Danube formed the frontier between the Roman Empire and the "Barbaricum", the Romans built small outposts along the left bank of the Danube, for instance, at Iža and Devín.[13] During the same period, the Germanic tribes were expanding to the north along the rivers Hron, Ipeľ and Nitra.[12] Roman troops crossed the Danube several times during the Marcomannic Wars between 160 and 180.[11] Emperor Marcus Aurelius accomplished the first chapter of his Meditations during a campaign against the Quadi in the region of the Hron River in 172.[10] The "Miracle of the Rain" – a storm which saved an exhausted Roman army – occurred in the land north of the Danube in 173; Christian authors attributed it to a Christian soldier's prayer.[14][15] Roman troops crossed the Danube for the last time in 374, during Emperor Valentinian I's campaign against the Quadi who had allied with the Sarmatians and invaded the Roman province of Pannonia.[16]
Medieval history
New migrations
In the 4th century AD, the Roman Empire could no longer resist the attacks by the neighboring peoples.
Disputes among Attila's sons caused the disintegration of his empire shortly after his death in 453.
Arrival of the Slavs
Regarding the early history of Slavs, Slavic texts or a record written by a Slav dating from before the late 9th century are not known.[25] The foreign sources (mostly Greek and Latin) about Slavs are very inconsistent.[25] According to a scholarly theory, the first Slavic groups settled in the eastern region of present-day Slovakia already in the 4th century.[26] The 6th-century Byzantine historian Jordanes wrote that the funeral feast at Attila's burial was called strava.[21][27] Scholars who identify that word as a Slavic expression say that Jordanes' report proves that Slavs inhabited the Carpathian Basin in the middle of the 5th century.[21][28] However, according to a concurrent scholarly theory, strava may have been a Hunnic term, because no primary source mentioned that the Slavs were present in Attila's court.[27]
Settlements which represented a new
According to historian Gabriel Fusek, written sources also evidence the presence of Slavs in the Central Europe in the first half of the 6th century.
The Germanic Longobards were expanding towards the Middle Danube in the early 6th century.[26] Archaeological research shows that Longobard expansion bypassed virtually the entire territory of Slovakia and they settled only in the most north-western part of the country (Záhorie).[39][40][41] Unlike neighbouring Moravia, Slovakia (except of Záhorie) did not belong to any German empire in this time.[41] The Longobards and the local Slavs remained separated by the natural border formed by Little and White Carpathians, respected by both sides according to Ján Steinhübel. He also writes that the Slavs, who remained "an independent third party" in strained Longobard-Gepid relations, were not interested in conflicts with their Germanic neighbours, but made raids in the faraway Byzantine Empire.[42][clarification needed]
Avar Khaganate
The Longobards left the Carpathian Basin for Northern Italy after the invasion of the territory by the Avars in 568.[26] The Avars were a group of nomadic warriors of mixed origin.[43] They conquered the Carpathian Basin, subjugated the local peoples and launched plundering expeditions against the neighboring powers during the next decades.[26][43] By the time of the Avars' arrival, the Slavs had settled in most lands that now form Slovakia, according to historian Stanislav Kirschbaum.[44] Further migration waves strengthened the local Slavic population because new Slavic groups, pressed by the Avars, crossed the Eastern Carpathians, seceding from the Slavs who continued their expansion to the Balkan Peninsula.[45] Dialects of Slovak still reflect that the Slavs came from different directions already in the Early Middle Ages, according to a widely accepted scholarly theory.[46][47] Czech and Slovak share some features with the South Slavic languages, distinguishing them from the other West Slavic languages.[48][49] According to archaeologist P. M. Barford, these features suggest that the Carpathian Mountains and the Sudetes separated the ancestors of the Slovaks and the Czechs from the Slavs living to the north of those mountains.[48] Especially the dialects of Central Slovakia, which "stand out from the continuous chain between the western and eastern dialects",[50] preserved South Slavic features.[51][47][52]
The 7th-century Frankish
A new horizon of mostly hand-made pottery – the so-called "Devínska Nová Ves pottery" – appeared between the Middle Danube and the Carpathians before the end of the 7th century.[54] Large inhumation cemeteries yielding such pottery were unearthed at Bratislava, Holiare, Nové Zámky and other places, suggesting that cemeteries were located near stable settlements.[59] For instance, the cemetery at Devínska Nová Ves, which contained about a thousand inhumation graves and thirty cremations, was used up until the end of the 8th century.[54]
In the 670s, the new population of the "griffin and tendril" archaeological culture appeared in the Pannonian Basin expelling Kuber's Bulgars south out of Sirmium (the westernmost part of Kubrat's Onoguria). Shortly afterwards the new Avar-Slav alliance could expand their territories even also over the Vienna Basin. The political and cultural development in Slovakia continued in two separate lines. Lowland areas in the southern Slovakia got under the direct military control of the Avars. The Avars held strategic centers in Devín and Komárno which belonged to the most important centers of the khaganate. The Avars from Devín controlled Moravia and from Komárno they controlled southern Slovakia. In this time, the Avars already began to adopt a more settled lifestyle. The new period introduced Slavo-Avaric symbiosis and multi-ethnic Slavo-Avaric culture.[60] The Slavs in southern Slovakia adopted new burial rite (inhumation), jewelry, fashion and used also common cemeteries with the Avars. Large Slavo-Avaric cemeteries can be found in Devínska Nová Ves and Záhorská Bystrica near Bratislava and similar cemeteries, the proof of direct Avar power, south of the line Devín-Nitra-Levice-Želovce-Košice-Šebastovce.[60] North of this line, the Slavs preserved previous burial rite (cremation, sometimes tumuli). Natural increase of the population together with immigration from the south led to the settlement also in mountain areas.[60]
In the 8th century, the Slavs increased their agricultural productivity (usage of iron plow) along with further development of crafts. Higher productivity initiated changes in the Slavic society, released a part of human resources previously required for farming and allowed to form groups of professional warriors. The Slavs began to build heavily fortified settlements (hradisko - large
A series of
Principality of Nitra
The
Between 800 and 832, a group of Slavic forthills in Slovakia quickly arose and disappeared.[71] Archaeological research confirmed the fall of several important central forthills approximately around the time when Pribina was expelled, e.g. Pobedim or Čingov.[72] The lack of written sources does not allow to finally conclude if these events were caused by internal changes or by Moravian expansion.[71] Pribina could be a ruler of an independent entity (the Principality of Nitra)[70] or in the case that Moravian expansion preceded his expulsion, he was a member of "Moravian" aristocracy.[71]
Other historians write that
Richard Marsina writes that the Slovak nation emerged in that principality during Pribina's reign.[70] Regarding the 9th century, the archaeological researches successfully established a distinction between "9th-century Slavic-Moravian" and "steppe" burial horizons in Slovakia.[76]
Great Moravia
Moravia emerged along the borders of the Avars' territory.[77] Great Moravia arose around 830 when Mojmír I unified the Slavic tribes settled north of the Danube and extended the Moravian supremacy over them.[78] When Mojmír I endeavoured to secede from the supremacy of the king of East Francia in 846, King Louis the German deposed him and assisted Mojmír's nephew, Rastislav (846–870) in acquiring the throne.[79]
The new monarch pursued an independent policy: after stopping a Frankish attack in 855, he also sought to weaken influence of Frankish priests preaching in his realm. Rastislav asked the
During Rastislav's reign, the Principality of Nitra was given to his nephew Svätopluk as an appanage.[81] The rebellious prince allied himself with the Franks and overthrew his uncle in 870. Similarly to his predecessor, Svätopluk I (871–894) assumed the title of the king (rex). During his reign, the Great Moravian Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, when not only present-day Moravia and Slovakia but also present-day northern and central Hungary, Lower Austria, Bohemia, Silesia, Lusatia, southern Poland and northern Serbia belonged to the empire, but the exact borders of his domains are still disputed by modern authors.[62][87] Svätopluk also withstood attacks of the seminomadic Hungarian tribes[63] and the Bulgarian Empire, although sometimes it was he who hired the Hungarians when waging war against East Francia.[88]
In 880,
After the death of King Svätopluk in 894, his sons Mojmír II (894–906?) and Svatopluk II succeeded him as the King of Great Moravia and the Prince of Nitra respectively.[81] However, they started to quarrel for domination of the whole empire. Weakened by an internal conflict as well as by constant warfare with Eastern Francia, Great Moravia lost most of its peripheral territories.
In the meantime, the Hungarian tribes, having suffered a defeat from the nomadic Pechenegs, left their territories east of the Carpathian Mountains, invaded the Pannonian Basin and started to occupy the territory gradually around 896.[89] Their armies' advance may have been promoted by continuous wars among the countries of the region whose rulers still hired them occasionally to intervene in their struggles.[90]
Both Mojmír II and Svätopluk II probably died in battles with the Hungarians between 904 and 907 because their names are not mentioned in written sources after 906. In
Great Moravia left behind a lasting legacy in Central and Eastern Europe. The
High Middle Ages
Settlement of Hungarians in the 10th century
From 895 to 902,[93] the Hungarians progressively imposed their authority on the Pannonian Basin. Although some contemporary sources mention that Great Moravia disappeared without trace and its inhabitants left, archaeological research and toponyms suggest the continuity of Slavic population in the river valleys of the Inner Western Carpathians.[94][95]
The oldest Hungarian graves in Slovakia are dated to the end of the 9th and the beginning of the 10th century (Medzibordožie region, Eastern Slovakia). These findings document only a relatively short stay, without direct continuation in the settlement.[96] Further findings elsewhere, in the most southern parts of Slovakia, are dated to 920-925 and consist mainly of graves of warrior type (isolated graves and smaller groups). Between 930 and 940, larger groups of Magyars began to migrate to the southern parts of today's Slovakia, but did not cross the line Bratislava, Hlohovec, Nitra, Levice, Lučenec, Rimavská Sobota. The territory affected by this early migration covers about 15% of today's Slovakia (7,500 km2). Hungarian settlements from these first two waves are not documented in the most fertile regions of Trnava Board, Považie north of Hlohovec, Ponitrie north of Nitra and the Eastern Slovak Lowland.[96] The initial confrontation did not have a permanent character, and during the 10th century both populations coexisted. In southern Slovakia, the Hungarians frequently founded their villages close to the older Slavic settlements as they changed their nomadic lifestyle and settled; they occasionally joined them and used the same cemeteries.[97] In the 11th century, the differences between Slavic and Magyar graves disappeared.[a][98] The archaeological research has also significantly changed the view on the settlement of the northern parts of the country.[96][clarification needed] In addition to the southern parts and river valleys of Nitra (river) and Váh, a relative high population density[quantify] is notable particularly for the Spiš region with the Poprad river valley and the Turiec Basin. Liptov and the Zvolen Basins, Žilina Basin, Central Orava and northern Šariš were rather sparsely populated.[96]
After the fall of the state, some non-landholding noblemen joined the Hungarian forces and participated in their raids in other parts of Europe. The chroniclers of the early history of the Kingdom of Hungary recorded that the prominent noble families of the kingdom descended either from leaders of the Hungarian tribes or from immigrants, and they did not connect any of them to Great Moravia. Archeological evidence proves that to the north of the line mentioned above, not only did the older settlement structures survive, but so also did the territorial administration led by native magnates.[b][neutrality is disputed][99] The Great Moravian or potential Great Moravian origin of the clan Hunt-Pázmán (Hont-Pázmány) has been advanced by some modern scholars.[100][101]
The territory of the present-day Slovakia became progressively integrated into the developing state (the future
Tercia pars regni or Principality of Nitra (11th century)
The development of the future Kingdom of Hungary started during the reign of Grand Prince
When Géza died, a member of the Árpád dynasty, the pagan
The Kingdom of Hungary integrated elements of the former Great Moravian state organization.
Around 1015, Duke
Following King Stephen's death, his kingdom got involved in internal conflicts among the claimants for his crown and
In 1048, King
The history of the Tercia pars regni ended in 1107, when King
Mongol invasion (1241–1242)
In 1241, the
Following the withdrawal of the Mongol army, Frederick II, Duke of Austria invaded the country. In July 1242 his army reached Hlohovec but the Hungarian army, mainly thank to troops from Trenčín and Nitra counties repelled the attack.[123] Bohumír (Bogomer), the župan of Trenčín who played an important role in the suppression of Austrian units, later led the army send to help Bolesław V the Chaste (son-in-law of the Hungarian king) attacked by Konrad I of Masovia. The army consisted mainly of soldiers from the ethnic Slovak counties.[123]
Development of counties and towns
The royal administration of the territory was developing gradually during the 11th-13th centuries: new counties were established with the partition of existing ones or central counties of the kingdom expanded their territory northward today's
Some of the towns in present-day Slovakia were granted special privileges already prior to the Mongol invasion: Trnava (1238), Starý Tekov (1240), Zvolen and Krupina (before 1241).[122] Following the withdrawal of the Mongol troops (1242), several castles were built or strengthened (e.g., Komárno, Beckov (Hungarian: Beckó) and Zvolen) on the order of King Béla IV.[127] In addition to a relatively developed network of castles, agglomerations of an urban character became more important. Medieval towns should serve both to economic and defensive purposes.
The territory of present-day Slovakia was rich in raw materials like gold, silver, copper, iron and salt and therefore the mining industry developed gradually in the region.[128] The development of the mining industry and commerce strengthened the position of some settlements and they received privileges from the kings.[129][130][131] The list of towns with the earliest charters contains Spišské Vlachy (1243), Košice (before 1248), Nitra (1248), Banská Štiavnica (1255), Nemecká Ľupča (1263), Komárno (1269), Gelnica (before 1270), Bratislava (1291) and Prešov, Veľký Šariš and Sabinov (all in 1299).[122][132] The Saxons in Spiš (German: Zips) were granted a collective charter (1271) by King Stephen V of Hungary.[133]
The colonisation of the northern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary continued during the period; Walloon, German, Hungarian and Slavic "guests" (hospes, as they are called in contemporary documents) arrived to the scarcely populated lands and settled down there.[134] The contemporary documents mention that settlers from Moravia and Bohemia arrived to the western parts of present-day Slovakia, while on the northern and eastern parts, Polish and Ruthenian "guests" settled down.[135]
German guests had an important but not exclusive role in the development of towns. Smaller groups of Germans were present already prior the Mongol invasion, but their immigration took a significant rate in the 13th-14th century.
In the Middle Ages, present-day Slovakia belonged to the most urbanized regions of the Kingdom of Hungary and it was an important cultural and economic base.[138] According to the decree of the King Vladislaus II Jagiello (1498) six of the ten most important towns in the kingdom were located in the present-day Slovakia: Košice, Bratislava, Bardejov, Prešov, Trnava and Levoča.[139] In 1514, more than half of the royal towns and free mining towns of the kingdom were located in Slovakia.[139] At the end of the Middle Ages, about two hundred other settlements had an urban character from a functional point of view. The first written mention prior 1500 is available for 2.476 settlements. The mining towns in Slovakia significantly contributed to the economy of the Kingdom of Hungary. Around the middle of the 14th century, Kremnica alone produced 400 kg of gold per year.[137] Banská Štiavnica and Banská Bystrica produced a substantial proportion of silver of the whole kingdom. During the second half of the 14th century, the Kingdom of Hungary produced cca 25% of Europe's total output.[137]
The towns formed unions and associations to defend their privileges and common interests. The most important unions were the Community of Saxons of Spiš (German: Zips) (later reduced and known as the province of twenty-four Spiš towns), the Lower Hungarian Mining Towns (mining towns in Central Slovakia), Pentapolis (alliance of free royal towns in present-day Eastern Slovakia) and the Upper Hungarian Mining Towns (mining towns in eastern Slovakia including two mining towns in present-day Hungary).[140]
The inhabitants of the privileged towns were mainly of German origin, followed by Slovaks and smaller number of Hungarians.
Period of the oligarchs (1290–1321)
The last decades of the 13th century were characterized by discords within the royal family and among the several groups of the aristocracy.
Following the Mongol invasion of the kingdom, a competition started among the landowners: each of them endeavored to build a castle with or without the permission of the king.[149] The competition started a process of differentiation among the noble families, because the nobles who were able to build a castle could also expand their influence over the neighbouring landowners.[150] The conflicts among the members of the royal family also strengthened the power of the aristocrats (who sometimes received whole counties from the kings) and resulted in the formation of around eight huge territories (domains) in the kingdom, governed by powerful aristocrats in the 1290s.[151]
In present-day Slovakia, most of the castles were owned by two powerful aristocrats (
Matthew III Csák was the de facto ruler of the western territories of present-day Slovakia, from his seat at Trenčín.[154] He allied himself with the murdered Amade Aba's sons against Košice, but King Charles I of Hungary, who had managed to acquire the throne against his opponents, gave military assistance to the town and the royal armies defeated him at the Battle of Rozgony / Rozhanovce in 1312.[103][page needed] However, the north-western counties remained in his power until his death in 1321 when the royal armies occupied his former castles without resistance.[103][page needed]
Pressburg (Bratislava) county was de facto ruled by the Dukes of Austria from 1301 to 1328 when King Charles I of Hungary reoccupied it.[155]
Late Middle Ages (14th–15th centuries)
King Charles I strengthened the central power in the kingdom following a 20-year-long period of struggles against his opponents and the oligarchs.
The king confirmed the privileges of the 24 "
In the first half of the 14th century, the population of the regions of the former "forest counties" increased and their territories formed new counties such as Orava, Liptov,
From the 1320s, most of the lands of present-day Slovakia were owned by the kings, but
Following the death of King
Modern era
Early modern period
Habsburg and Ottoman administration
The Ottoman Empire conquered the central part of the Kingdom of Hungary, and set up several Ottoman provinces there (see Budin Eyalet, Eğri Eyalet, Uyvar Eyalet). Transylvania became an
Ferdinand I, prince of Austria was elected king of Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary. After the conquest of Buda in 1541 by the Ottomans, Pressburg (the modern-day capital of Slovakia, Bratislava) became, for the period between 1536 and 1784/1848 the capital and the coronation city of the Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary. From 1526 to 1830, nineteen Habsburg sovereigns went through coronation ceremonies as Kings and Queens of the Kingdom of Hungary in
After the Ottoman invasion, the territories that had been administered by the Kingdom of Hungary became, for almost two centuries, the principal battleground of the
During Ottoman administration, parts of the territory of present-day Slovakia were included into Ottoman provinces known as the
After the ousting of the Ottomans from Budin (which later became Budapest) in 1686, it became the capital of the Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary. Despite living under Hungarian, Habsburg and Ottoman administration for several centuries, the Slovak people succeeded in keeping their language and their culture.
Late modern period
Slovak National Movement
During the 18th century the Slovak National Movement emerged, partially inspired by the broader
The first codification of standard Slovak by
members of a single nation and they attempted to draw the languages closer together.In the 1840s, the Protestants split as Ľudovít Štúr developed a standard language based on the dialect from central Slovakia. His followers stressed the separate identity of the Slovak nation and uniqueness of its language. Štúr's version was finally approved by both the Catholics and the Lutherans in 1847 and, after several reforms, it remains standard Slovak.
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
In the
After the defeat of the Hungarian Revolution, the Hungarian political elite was oppressed by the Austrian authorities and many participants of the Revolution were executed, imprisoned, or forced to emigrate. In 1850, the Kingdom of Hungary was divided into five military districts or provinces, two of which had administrative centers in the territory of present-day Slovakia: the Military District of Pressburg (Bratislava) and the Military District of Košice.
The Austrian authorities abolished both provinces in 1860. The Slovak political elite made use of the period of
Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
The heyday of the movement came to a sudden end after 1867, when the
New signs of national and political life appeared only at the very end of the 19th century. Slovaks became aware that they needed to ally themselves with others in their struggle. One result of this awareness, the Congress of Oppressed Peoples of the Kingdom of Hungary, held in Budapest in 1895, alarmed the government. In their struggle Slovaks received a great deal of help from the Czechs. In 1896, the concept of Czecho-Slovak Mutuality was established in Prague to strengthen Czecho-Slovak cooperation and support the secession of Slovaks from the Kingdom of Hungary.
At the beginning of the 20th century, growing democratization of political and social life threatened to overwhelm the monarchy. The call for universal suffrage became the main rallying cry. In the Kingdom of Hungary, only 5 percent of inhabitants could vote. Slovaks saw in the trend towards representative democracy a possibility of easing ethnic oppression and a breakthrough into renewed political activity.
The Slovak political camp, at the beginning of the century, split into different factions. The leaders of the Slovak National Party, based in Martin, expected the international situation to change in the Slovaks' favor, and they set great store by Russia. The Roman Catholic faction of Slovak politicians led by Father Andrej Hlinka focused on small undertakings among the Slovak public and, shortly before the war, established a political party named the Slovak People's Party. The liberal intelligentsia rallying around the journal Hlas ("Voice"), followed a similar political path, but attached more importance to Czecho-Slovak cooperation. An independent Social Democratic Party emerged in 1905.
The Slovaks achieved some results. One of the greatest of these was the election success in 1906, when, despite continued oppression, seven Slovaks managed to get seats in the Assembly. This success alarmed the government, and increased what was regarded by Slovaks as its oppressive measures. Magyarization achieved its climax with a new education act known as the Apponyi Act, named after education minister Count Albert Apponyi. The new act stipulated that the teaching of Hungarian must be included as a subject in the curriculum of non-state-owned four years elementary schools in the framework of compulsory schooling, as a condition for those schools to receive state financing. Non-government organizations such as the Upper Hungary Magyar Educational Society supported Magyarization at a local level.
Ethnic tension intensified when 15 Slovaks were killed during a riot on the occasion of the consecration of a new church at Černová / Csernova near
Before the outbreak of World War I, the idea of Slovak autonomy became part of Archduke Franz Ferdinand's plan of federalization of the monarchy, developed with help of the Slovak journalist and politician Milan Hodža. This last realistic attempt to tie Slovakia to Austria-Hungary was abandoned because of the Archduke's assassination, which in turn triggered World War I.
Czechoslovakia
Formation of Czechoslovakia
After the outbreak of
The most important Slovak representative at this time, Milan Rastislav Štefánik, a French citizen of Slovak origin, served as a French general and as leading representative of the Czecho-Slovak National Council based in Paris. He made a decisive contribution to the success of the Czecho-Slovak cause. Political representatives at home, including representatives of all political persuasions, after some hesitation, gave their support to the activities of Masaryk, Beneš and Štefánik.
During the war the Hungarian authorities increased harassment of Slovaks, which hindered the nationalist campaign among the inhabitants of the Slovak lands. Despite stringent censorship, news of moves abroad towards the establishment of a Czech-Slovak state got through to Slovakia and met with much satisfaction.
During
First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938)
At the end of the war Austria-Hungary dissolved. The Prague National Committee proclaimed an independent republic of
As a result of the counter-attack of the
In the
In addition, in
Slovaks, whom the Czechs outnumbered in the Czechoslovak state, differed in many important ways from their Czech neighbors. Slovakia had a more agrarian and less developed economy than the Czech lands, and the majority of Slovaks practised Catholicism while fewer Czechs adhered to established religions. The Slovak people had generally less education and less experience with self-government than the Czechs. These disparities, compounded by centralized governmental control from Prague, produced discontent with the structure of the new state among the Slovaks.[177]
Although Czechoslovakia, alone among the east-central European countries, remained a
In the period between the two world wars, the Czechoslovak government attempted to industrialize Slovakia. These efforts did not meet with success, partially due to the Great Depression, the worldwide economic slump of the 1930s. Slovak resentment over perceived economic and political domination by the Czechs led to increasing dissatisfaction with the republic and growing support for ideas of independence. Many Slovaks joined with Father Andrej Hlinka and Jozef Tiso in calls for equality between Czechs and Slovaks and for greater autonomy for Slovakia.[citation needed]
Towards autonomy of Slovakia (1938–1939)
In September 1938, France, Italy, United Kingdom and Nazi Germany concluded the Munich Agreement, which forced Czechoslovakia to cede the predominantly German region known as the Sudetenland to Germany. In November, by the First Vienna Award, Italy and Germany compelled Czechoslovakia (later Slovakia) to cede primarily Hungarian-inhabited Southern Slovakia to Hungary. They did this in spite of pro-German official declarations of Czech and Slovak leaders made in October.
On 14 March 1939, the Slovak Republic (Slovenská republika) declared its independence and became a nominally independent state in Central Europe under Nazi German control of foreign policy and, increasingly, also some aspects of domestic policy. Jozef Tiso became Prime Minister and later President of the new state.
On 15 March, Nazi Germany invaded what remained of
World War II
The nominally independent
Soon after independence, under the authoritarian government of Jozef Tiso, a series of measures aimed against the 90,000 Jews in the country were initiated. The
On 29 August 1944, 60,000 Slovak troops and 18,000 partisans, organized by various underground groups and the Czechoslovak government-in-exile, rose up against the Nazis. The insurrection later became known as the Slovak National Uprising. Slovakia was devastated by the fierce German counter-offensive and occupation, but the guerrilla warfare continued even after the end of organized resistance. Although ultimately quelled by the German forces, the uprising was an important historical reference point for the Slovak people. It allowed them to end the war as a nation which had contributed to the Allied victory.[182]
Later in 1944 the Soviet attacks intensified. The Red Army, helped by Romanian troops, gradually routed out the German army from Slovak territory. On 4 April 1945, Soviet troops marched into the capital city of the Slovak Republic, Bratislava.
Czechoslovakia after World War II
The victorious Powers restored Czechoslovakia in 1945 in the wake of World War II, albeit without Carpathian Ruthenia, which Prague ceded to the Soviet Union. The Beneš decrees, adopted as a result of the events of the war, led to disenfranchisement and persecution of the Hungarian minority in southern Slovakia. The local German minority was expelled, with only the population of some villages such as Chmeľnica evading expulsion but suffering discrimination against use of their language.[citation needed] The Czechs and Slovaks held elections in 1946. In Slovakia, the Democratic Party won the elections (62%), but the
Strict
The 1970s and 1980s became known as the period of "normalization", in which the apologists for the 1968 Soviet invasion prevented as best they could any opposition to their conservative régime. Political, social, and economic life stagnated. Because the reform movement had had its center in Prague, Slovakia experienced "normalization" less harshly than the Czech lands. In fact, the Slovak Republic saw comparatively high economic growth in the 1970s and 1980s relative to the Czech Republic (and mostly from 1994 till today[update]).
The 1970s also saw the development of a dissident movement, especially in the Czech Republic. On 1 January 1977, more than 250 human rights activists signed a manifesto called Charter 77, which criticized the Czechoslovak government for failing to meet its human rights obligations.
Velvet Revolution (1989)
On 17 November 1989, a series of public protests known as the "Velvet Revolution" began and led to the downfall of Communist Party rule in Czechoslovakia. A transition government formed in December 1989, and the first free elections in Czechoslovakia since 1948 took place in June 1990. In 1992, negotiations on the new federal constitution deadlocked over the issue of Slovak autonomy. In the latter half of 1992, agreement emerged to dissolve Czechoslovakia peacefully. On 1 January 1993, the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic each simultaneously and peacefully proclaimed their existence. Both states attained immediate recognition from the United States of America and from their European neighbors.
In the days following the "Velvet Revolution," Charter 77 and other groups united to become the Civic Forum, an umbrella group championing bureaucratic reform and civil liberties. Its leader, the playwright and former dissident Václav Havel won election as President of Czechoslovakia in December 1989. The Slovak counterpart of the Civic Forum, Public Against Violence, expressed the same ideals.
In the June 1990 elections, Civic Forum and Public Against Violence won landslide victories. Civic Forum and Public Against Violence found, however, that although they had successfully completed their primary objective – the overthrow of the communist régime – they proved less effective as governing parties. In the 1992 elections, a spectrum of new parties replaced both Civic Forum and Public Against Violence.
Contemporary period
Independent Slovakia
In an
The first president of newly independent Slovakia, Michal Kováč, promised to make Slovakia "the Switzerland of Eastern Europe". The first prime minister, Mečiar, had served as the prime minister of the Slovak part of Czechoslovakia since 1992.
The first Dzurinda government made numerous political and economic reforms that enabled Slovakia to enter the
In the September 2002 parliamentary election, a last-minute surge in support for Prime Minister Dzurinda's
The new coalition had as its main priorities—gaining of NATO and EU invitations, attracting foreign investment, and reforming social services such as the health-care system. Vladimír Mečiar's 'Movement for a Democratic Slovakia', which received about 27% of the vote in 1998 (almost 900,000 votes) received only 19.5% (about 560,000 votes) in 2002 and again went into opposition, unable to find coalition partners. The opposition comprised the HZDS, Smer (led by Róbert Fico), and the Communists, who obtained about 6% of the popular vote.
Initially, Slovakia experienced more difficulty than the Czech Republic in developing a modern
The next election took place on 17 June 2006, where the leftist Smer got 29.14% (around 670 000 votes) of the popular vote and formed a coalition with Slota's Slovak National Party and Mečiar's 'Movement for a Democratic Slovakia'. Their opposition comprised the former ruling parties: the SDKÚ, the SMK and the KDH.
The
Smer won the
Slovakia's Prime Minister Robert Fico resigned in March 2018 following the largest street protests in decades over the murder of Ján Kuciak, an investigative journalist who was investigating high-level political corruption linked to the organized crime.[188] Slovak President Andrej Kiska appointed Peter Pellegrini as the new prime minister to succeed Fico.[189]
In March 2019, Zuzana Čaputová was elected as the first female President of Slovakia. She was a member of the liberal Progressive Slovakia party, which had no seats in parliament.[190]
After the
In September 2023, populist left-wing
See also
- Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
- History of Bratislava
- History of Czechoslovakia
- History of the Czech Republic
- History of the Jews in Slovakia
- History of the Slovak language
- Politics of Slovakia
- Slovaks in Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)
Lists:
- List of presidents of Czechoslovakia
- List of prime ministers of Czechoslovakia
- List of presidents of Slovakia
- List of prime ministers of Slovakia
General:
Notes
- ^ Christianisation of Hungarians for example influenced burial rite and customs like inhumation with horse parts and tacks.
- ^ This older hypothesis was unanimously confirmed by archeological evidences from Ducové and Nitrianska Blatnica.
- ^ Hungarian population was dominant in free royal town Komárno, in other important towns like Košice or Nitra they lived together with substantial German and Slovak populations. Slovaks had an overwhelming majority in Trenčín.
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- Sussex, Roland; Cubberley, Paul (2006). The Slavic Languages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29448-5.
- Teich, Mikuláš; Kováč, Dušan; Brown, Martin, eds. (2011). Slovakia in History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80253-6.
- Uhlár, Vlado (1984). "Historik B. Varsík o tzv. juhoslavizmoch v slovenčine" [Historian B. Varsík on So-Called Cugoslavisms in Slovak] (PDF). Slovenská Reč. 49 (2).
- Závodný, Andrej (2013). Vývin slovenského jazyka a dialektológia [Evolution of Slovak and Dialectology]. Trnava: Pedagogická fakulta Trnavskej univerzity v Trnave. ISBN 978-80-8082-615-4.
Historiography
- Kirschbaum, Stanislav. A Guide to Historiography in Slovakia. In: Canadian Slavonic Papers (1996) 38#3/4, online
Primary sources
- Procopius: History of the Wars (Books VI.16–VII.35.) (With an English Translation by H. B. Dewing) (2006). Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-99191-5.
External links
- History of Slovakia at the Slovak Ministry of Foreign Affairs website
- Detailed Slovak history timeline until 1714
- Overview from slovakia.org
- History of Slovakia: Primary Documents
- Brief description at the U.S. Department of State website
- History of the Slovak national movement
- Concise Jewish History of Slovakia
- History of Slovakia by Jozef Komornik
- Frontier of the Roman Empire in Slovakia