Homosexuality and psychology
Sexual orientation |
---|
Sexual orientations |
Related terms |
Research |
Animals |
Related topics |
Part of a series on |
LGBT topics |
---|
t |
The field of
The consensus of scientific research and clinical literature demonstrate that same-sex attractions, feelings, and behaviors are normal and positive variations of human sexuality.
Historical background
The view of
As people became more interested in discovering the causes of homosexuality, medicine and psychiatry began competing with the law and religion for
A 2016 survey of the
Freud and psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud's views on homosexuality were complex. In his attempts to understand the causes and development of homosexuality, he first explained bisexuality as an "original libido endowment",[9] by which he meant that all humans are born bisexual. He believed that the libido has a homosexual portion and a heterosexual portion, and through the course of development one wins out over the other.
Some other causes of homosexuality for which he advocated included an inverted Oedipus complex where individuals begin to identify with their mother and take themselves as a love object. This love of one's self is defined as narcissism, and Freud thought that people who were high in the trait of narcissism would be more likely to develop homosexuality because loving the same sex is like an extension of loving oneself.[10]
Freud believed treatment of homosexuality was not successful because the individual does not want to give up their homosexual identity because it brings them pleasure. He used
Havelock Ellis
Havelock Ellis (1859–1939) was working as a teacher in Australia, when he had a revelation that he wanted to dedicate his life to exploring the issue of sexuality. He returned to London in 1879 and enrolled in St. Thomas's Hospital Medical School. He began to write, and in 1896 he co-authored Sexual Inversion with John Addington Symonds. The book was first published in German, and a year later it was translated into English. Their book explored homosexual relationships, and in a progressive approach for their time they refused to criminalize or pathologize the acts and emotions that were present in homosexual relationships.[13]
Ellis disagreed with Freud on a few points regarding homosexuality, especially regarding its development. He argued that homosexuals do not have a clear cut Oedipus complex but they do have strong feelings of inadequacy, born of fears of failure, and may also be afraid of relations with women.[14] Ellis argued that the restrictions of society contributed to the development of same-sex love. He believed that homosexuality is not something people are born with, but that at some point humans are all sexually indiscriminate, and then narrow down and choose which sex acts to stick with. According to Ellis, some people choose to engage in homosexuality, while others will choose heterosexuality.[14] He proposed that being "exclusively homosexual"[15] is to be deviant because the person is a member of a minority and therefore statistically unusual, but that society should accept that deviations from the "normal" were harmless, and maybe even valuable.[13] Ellis believed that psychological problems arose not from homosexual acts alone, but when someone "psychologically harms himself by fearfully limiting his own sex behavior".[14]
Ellis is often credited with coining the term homosexuality but in reality he despised the word because it conflated Latin and Greek roots and instead used the term invert in his published works. Soon after Sexual Inversion was published in England, it was banned as lewd and scandalous. Ellis argued that homosexuality was a characteristic of a minority, and was not acquired or a vice and was not curable. He advocated changing the laws to leave those who chose to practice homosexuality at peace, because at the time it was a punishable crime. He believed societal reform could occur, but only after the public was educated. His book became a landmark in the understanding of homosexuality.[13]
Alfred Kinsey
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
The social, medical, and legal approach to homosexuality ultimately led to its inclusion in the first and second publications of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM). This served to conceptualize homosexuality as a mental disorder and further stigmatize homosexuality in society. However, the evolution in scientific study and empirical data from Kinsey, Evelyn Hooker, and others confronted these beliefs, and by the 1970s psychiatrists and psychologists were radically altering their views on homosexuality. Tests such as the Rorschach, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) indicated that homosexual men and women were not distinguishable from heterosexual men and women in functioning. These studies failed to support the previous assumptions that family dynamics, trauma, and gender identity were factors in the development of sexual orientation. Many psychologists have differing opinions about same-sex relationships. Some think that it is not healthy at all, some support it, and some cannot support it because of their own personal religious beliefs.[17] Due to lack of supporting data, as well as exponentially increasing pressure from gay rights advocates, the board of directors for the American Psychiatric Association voted to declassify homosexuality as a mental disorder from the DSM-II in 1973, but the DSM retained a diagnosis that could be used for distress due to one's sexual orientation until the DSM-5 (2013).[18]
Major areas of psychological research
Major psychological research into homosexuality is divided into five categories:[19]
- What causes some people to be attracted to his or her own sex?
- What causes discrimination against people with a homosexual orientation and how can this be influenced?[20]
- Does having a homosexual orientation affect one's health status, psychological functioning or general well-being?
- What determines successful adaptation to rejecting social climates? Why is homosexuality central to the identity of some people, but peripheral to the identity of others?[21]
- How do the children of homosexual people develop?
Psychological research in these areas has always been important to counteracting prejudicial attitudes and actions, and to the
Causes of homosexuality
Although no single theory on the cause of sexual orientation has yet gained widespread support, scientists favor biologically based theories.[22] There is considerably more evidence supporting nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation than social ones, especially for males.[23][24][25]
Discrimination
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2008) |
Research suggests that parents who respond negatively to their child's sexual orientation tended to have lower self-esteem and negative attitudes toward women, and that "negative feelings about homosexuality in parents - decreased the longer they were aware of their child's homosexuality".[30]
In addition, while research has suggested that "families with a strong emphasis on traditional values implying the importance of religion, an emphasis on marriage and having children – were less accepting of homosexuality than were low-tradition families",
Mental health issues
Psychological research in this area includes examining mental health issues (including stress, depression, or addictive behavior) faced by gay and lesbian people as a result of the difficulties they experience because of their sexual orientation, physical appearance issues, eating disorders, or gender atypical behavior.
- Psychiatric disorders: in a Dutch study, gay men reported significantly higher rates of mood and anxiety disorders than straight men, and lesbians were significantly more likely to experience depression (but not other mood or anxiety disorders) than straight women.[19] A research paper from the American Journal of Community Psychology states that individuals who face multiple forms of oppression tend to find their hardships more difficult to manage. In this study, it is noted that LGBTQ+ people who are disabled have reported struggling more with their oppressed statuses.[33]
- Physical appearance and eating disorders: gay men tend to be more concerned about their physical appearance than straight men.[34][full citation needed] Lesbian women are at a lower risk for eating disorders than heterosexual women.[35]
- Gender atypical behavior: while this is not a disorder, gay men may face difficulties due to being more likely to display gender atypical behavior than heterosexual men.[36] The difference is less pronounced between lesbians and straight women.[37]
- Minority stress: stress caused from a sexual stigma, manifested as prejudice and discrimination, is a major source of stress for people with a homosexual orientation. Sexual-minority affirming groups and gay peer groups help counteract and buffer minority stress.[6]
- change their sexual orientation. Sexual orientation identity exploration can help individuals evaluate the reasons behind the desire to change and help them resolve the conflict between their religious and sexual identity, either through sexual orientation identity reconstruction or affirmation therapies.[6]Ego-dystonic sexual orientation is a disorder where a person wishes their sexual orientation were different because of associated psychological and behavioral disorders.
- Sexual relationship disorder: people with a homosexual orientation in mixed-orientation marriages may struggle with the fear of the loss of their marriage.[6] Sexual relationship disorder is a disorder where the gender identity or sexual orientation of one of the partners interferes with maintaining or forming of a relationship.
Suicide
The likelihood of suicide attempts is higher in both gay males and lesbians, as well as bisexual individuals of both sexes, when compared to their heterosexual counterparts.
Studies dispute the exact difference in suicide rate compared to heterosexuals with a minimum of 0.8–1.1 times more likely for females[42] and 1.5–2.5 times more likely for males.[43][44] The higher figures reach 4.6 times more likely in females[45] and 14.6 times more likely in males.[19]
Race and age play a factor in the increased risk. The highest ratios for males are attributed to young Caucasians. By the age of 25, their risk is more than halved; however, the risk for black gay males at that age steadily increases to 8.6 times more likely. Over a lifetime, the increased likelihoods are 5.7 times for white and 12.8 for black gay and bisexual males. Lesbian and bisexual females have the opposite trend, with fewer attempts during the teenager years compared to heterosexual females. Through a lifetime, the likelihood for Caucasian females is nearly triple that of their heterosexual counterparts; however, for black females there is minimal change (less than 0.1 to 0.3 difference), with heterosexual black females having a slightly higher risk throughout most of the age-based study.[19]
Gay and lesbian youth who attempt suicide are disproportionately subject to anti-gay attitudes, often have fewer skills for coping with discrimination, isolation, and loneliness,[19][46][47] and were more likely to experience family rejection[48] than those who do not attempt suicide. Another study found that gay and bisexual youth who attempted suicide had more feminine gender roles,[49] adopted a non-heterosexual identity at a young age and were more likely than peers to report sexual abuse, drug abuse, and arrests for misconduct.[49] One study found that same-sex sexual behavior, but not homosexual attraction or homosexual identity, was significantly predictive of suicide among Norwegian adolescents.[50]
Government policies have been found to mediate this relationship by legislating structural stigma. One study using cross-country data from 1991 to 2017 for 36 OECD countries established that same-sex marriage legalization is associated with a decline in youth suicide of 1.191 deaths per 100,000 youth, with the impact more pronounced for male youth relative to female youth.[51] Another study of nationwide data from across the United States from January 1999 to December 2015 revealed that same-sex marriage is associated with a significant reduction in the rate of attempted suicide among children, with the effect being concentrated among children of a minority sexual orientation, resulting in about 134,000 fewer children attempting suicide each year in the United States.[52]
Sexual orientation identity development
- Coming out: many gay, lesbian and bisexual people go through a "coming out" experience at some point in their lives. Psychologists often say this process includes several stages "in which there is an awareness of being different from peers ('sensitization'), and in which people start to question their sexual identity ('identity confusion'). Subsequently, they start to explore practically the option of being gay, lesbian or bisexual and learn to deal with the stigma ('identity assumption'). In the final stage, they integrate their sexual desires into a positive understanding of self ('commitment')."[19] However, the process is not always linear[53] and it may differ for lesbians, gay men and bisexual individuals.[54]
- Different degrees of coming out: one study found that gay men are more likely to be out to friends and siblings than to co-workers, parents, and more distant relatives.[55]
- Coming out and well-being: same-sex couples who are openly gay are more satisfied in their relationships.[56] For women who self-identify as lesbian, the more people know about her sexual orientation, the less anxiety, more positive affectivity, and greater self-esteem she has.[57]
- Rejection of gay identity: various studies report that for some religious people, rejecting a gay identity appears to relieve the distress caused by conflicts between religious values and sexual orientation.[6][58][59][60][61] After reviewing the research, Judith Glassgold, chair of the American Psychological Association sexuality task force, said some people are content in denying a gay identity and "there is no clear evidence of harm".[62]
Fluidity of sexual orientation
Often, sexual orientation and
In a statement issued jointly with other major American medical organizations, the American Psychological Association states that "different people realize at different points in their lives that they are heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual".[68] A 2007 report from the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health states that, "For some people, sexual orientation is continuous and fixed throughout their lives. For others, sexual orientation may be fluid and change over time".[69] Lisa Diamond's study "Female bisexuality from adolescence to adulthood" suggests that there is "considerable fluidity in bisexual, unlabeled, and lesbian women's attractions, behaviors, and identities".[70][71]
Parenting
LGBT parenting is the parenting of children by
In the
Although it is sometimes asserted in policy debates that heterosexual couples are inherently better parents than same-sex couples, or that the children of lesbian or gay parents fare worse than children raised by heterosexual parents, those assertions are not supported by scientific research literature.[1][83] There is ample evidence to show that children raised by same-gender parents fare as well as those raised by heterosexual parents. Much research has documented the lack of correlation between parents' sexual orientation and any measure of a child's emotional, psychosocial, and behavioral adjustment. These data have demonstrated no risk to children as a result of growing up in a family with one or more gay parents.[84] No research supports the widely held conviction that the gender of parents influences the well-being of the child.[85] If gay, lesbian, or bisexual parents were inherently less capable than otherwise comparable heterosexual parents, their children would present more poorly regardless of the type of sample; this pattern has not been observed.[86]
Professor Judith Stacey of New York University, stated: "Rarely is there as much consensus in any area of social science as in the case of gay parenting, which is why the American Academy of Pediatrics and all of the major professional organizations with expertise in child welfare have issued reports and resolutions in support of gay and lesbian parental rights".[87] These organizations include the American Academy of Pediatrics,[84] the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,[88] the American Psychiatric Association,[89] the American Psychological Association,[90] the American Psychoanalytic Association,[91] the National Association of Social Workers,[1] the Child Welfare League of America,[92] the North American Council on Adoptable Children,[93] and the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA). The CPA is concerned that some persons and institutions are misinterpreting the findings of psychological research to support their positions, when their positions are more accurately based on other systems of belief or values.[94]
The vast majority of families in the United States today are not the "middle-class family with a bread-winning father and a stay-at-home mother, married to each other and raising their biological children" that has been viewed as the norm. Since the end of the 1980s, it has been well established that children and adolescents can adjust just as well in nontraditional settings as in traditional settings.[95]
Psychotherapy
Most people with a homosexual orientation who seek psychotherapy do so for the same reasons as straight people (stress, relationship difficulties, difficulty adjusting to social or work situations, etc.); their sexual orientation may be of primary, incidental, or no importance to their issues and treatment. Regardless of the issue for which psychotherapy is sought, there is a high risk of anti-gay bias being directed at non-heterosexual clients.[27]
Relationship counseling
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2009) |
Most relationship issues are shared equally among couples regardless of sexual orientation, but LGBT clients additionally have to deal with homophobia, heterosexism, and other societal oppressions. Individuals may also be at different stages in the coming out process. Often, same-sex couples do not have as many role models for successful relationships as opposite-sex couples. There may be issues with gender-role socialization that does not affect opposite-sex couples.[96]
A significant number of men and women experience conflict surrounding homosexual expression within a mixed-orientation marriage.[97] Therapy may include helping the client feel more comfortable and accepting of same-sex feelings and to explore ways of incorporating same-sex and opposite-sex feelings into life patterns.[98] Although a strong homosexual identity was associated with difficulties in marital satisfaction, viewing the same-sex activities as compulsive facilitated commitment to the marriage and to monogamy.[99]
Gay affirmative psychotherapy
Gay affirmative psychotherapy is a form of psychotherapy for gay, lesbian, and bisexual clients which encourages them to accept their sexual orientation, and does not attempt to change their sexual orientation to heterosexual, or to eliminate or diminish their same-sex desires and behaviors. The American Psychological Association (APA) and the British Psychological Society offer guidelines and materials for gay affirmative psychotherapy.[100][101] Practitioners of gay affirmative psychotherapy state that homosexuality or bisexuality is not a mental illness, and that embracing and affirming gay identity can be a key component to recovery from other mental illnesses or substance abuse.[100] Some people may find neither gay affirmative therapy nor conversion therapy appropriate, however. Clients whose religious beliefs are inconsistent with homosexual behavior may require some other method of integrating their conflicting religious and sexual selves.[102]
Sexual orientation identity exploration
The
After exploration, a patient may proceed with sexual orientation identity reconstruction, which helps a patient reconstruct sexual orientation identity. Psychotherapy, support groups, and life events can influence identity development; similarly, self-awareness, self-conception, and identity may evolve during treatment.[6] It can change sexual orientation identity (private and public identification, and group belonging), emotional adjustment (self-stigma and shame reduction), and personal beliefs, values and norms (change of religious and moral belief, behavior and motivation).[6] Some therapies include "gender wholeness therapy".[104]
The American Psychiatric Association states in their official statement release on the matter: "The potential risks of 'reparative therapy' are great and include depression, anxiety, and self-destructive behavior, since therapist alignment with societal prejudices against homosexuality may reinforce self-hatred already experienced by the patient. Many patients who have undergone 'reparative therapy' relate that they were inaccurately told that homosexuals are lonely, unhappy individuals who never achieve acceptance or satisfaction. The possibility that the person might achieve happiness and satisfying interpersonal relationships as a gay man or lesbian are not presented, nor are alternative approaches to dealing with the effects of societal stigmatization discussed. APA recognizes that in the course of ongoing psychiatric treatment, there may be appropriate clinical indications for attempting to change sexual behaviors."[105]
The American Psychological Association aligns with this in a resolution: it "urges all mental health professionals to take the lead in removing the stigma of mental illness that has long been associated with homosexual orientation"[106] and "Therefore be it further resolved that the American Psychological Association opposes portrayals of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth and adults as mentally ill due to their sexual orientation and supports the dissemination of accurate information about sexual orientation, and mental health, and appropriate interventions in order to counteract bias that is based in ignorance or unfounded beliefs about sexual orientation."[107]
The
Developments in individual psychology
In contemporary
See also
- Association of Gay and Lesbian Psychiatrists
- Conversion therapy
- Disability and LGBT identities
- Ego-dystonic sexual orientation
- Homosexuality in DSM
- Minority stress
- Timeline of sexual orientation and medicine
References
- ^ a b c d In re Marriage Cases, 183 P.3d 384 (Cal 2008).
- ^ "Stop discrimination against homosexual men and women". World Health Organization. 17 May 2011. Archived from the original on 9 July 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
"The decision of the World Health Organisation 15 years ago constitutes a historic date and powerful symbol for members of the LGBT community". International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association. Archived from the original on 30 October 2009. Retrieved 24 August 2010. - ^ American Psychological Association: Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation
- ^ "Submission to the Church of England's Listening Exercise on Human Sexuality". Royal College of Psychiatrists. Retrieved 13 June 2013.
- ^ a b Katz, J (1995). Gay and American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the United States. New York: Thomas Crowell.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Report of the American Psychological Association Task Force on Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation" (PDF). 2009.
- PMID 26690228.
- ISBN 978-92-9491-007-3.
In some countries, including Bulgaria, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Poland, Romania and Slovakia, respondents working in healthcare indicate that many healthcare professionals still see homosexuality as a pathological issue. Some medical training material still pathologises homosexuality.
- ^ a b Freud, Sigmund (1953). Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. London: Hogarth Press.
- OCLC 733597853.
- S2CID 28753502.
- PMID 14819376.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-15-100223-8.
- ^ a b c Ellis, Havelock (1963). If this be sexual heresy... New York: Lyle Stuart Inc.
- ^ Ellis, Havelock (1946). Psychology of Sex. New York: Emerson Books.
- ^ Geddes, Donald Porter (1954). An analysis of the Kinsey reports on sexual behavior in the human male and female. New York: Dutton.
- S2CID 148425783.
- ISSN 2713-2919.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7619-5417-0.
- ^ doi:10.1037/a0035198.
- S2CID 10971273.
- PMID 15173519.
- PMID 27113562.
- ISBN 978-0-19-975296-6.
- ISBN 978-0-19-983882-0.
- ^ Jensen, Jeffrey (5 September 1999). Affirmation - Homosexuality: A Psychiatrist's Response to LDS Social Services. National Affirmation Annual Conference. Portland, Oregon. Archived from the original on 4 July 2003.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-88048-716-0.
- S2CID 145249962– via SAGE journals.
- ^ James, S. E., Herman, J. L., Rankin, S., Keisling, M., Mottet, L., & Anafi, M. (2016). The Report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey. Washington, DC: National Center for Transgender Equality.
- ISSN 0736-7236.
- PMID 8456611.
- doi:10.1037/a0035198– via American Psychological Association.
- S2CID 7293790.
- .
- PMID 8201061.
- PMID 7932031.
- PMID 1880402.
- S2CID 145338147.
- S2CID 25214272.
- PMID 17901445.
- ^ Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual & Transgender "Attempted Suicide" Incidences/Risks Suicidality Studies From 1970 to 2009
- OCLC 5126171.
- PMID 10596508.
- PMID 11499118.
- PMID 5473144.
- S2CID 144865384.
- PMID 7939864.
- S2CID 33361972.
- ^ S2CID 42547461.
- PMID 12653422.
- S2CID 233028334.
- PMID 28241285.
- S2CID 145206767.
- ISSN 1540-4560.
- PMID 1431083.
- PMID 2392712.
- PMID 9524921.
- JSTOR 2695855.
- ISBN 978-0-520-93905-9.
- JSTOR 3710850.
- ^ Kerr, R. A. (1997). The experience of integrating gay identity with evangelical Christian faith" Dissertation Abstracts International 58(09), 5124B. (UMI No. 9810055).
- ISSN 0099-9660.
- ISBN 9780981450513
- PMID 16817067.
- S2CID 21881268.
- ^
- Bailey, J. Michael; Vasey, Paul; Diamond, Lisa; Breedlove, S. Marc; Vilain, Eric; Epprecht, Marc (2016). "Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 17 (2): 45–101. PMID 27113562.
Sexual fluidity is situation-dependent flexibility in a person's sexual responsiveness, which makes it possible for some individuals to experience desires for either men or women under certain circumstances regardless of their overall sexual orientation....We expect that in all cultures the vast majority of individuals are sexually predisposed exclusively to the other sex (i.e., heterosexual) and that only a minority of individuals are sexually predisposed (whether exclusively or non-exclusively) to the same sex.
- Dennis Coon; John O. Mitterer (2012). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior with Concept Maps and Reviews. ISBN 978-1-111-83363-3. Retrieved 18 February 2016.
Sexual orientation is a deep part of personal identity and is usually quite stable. Starting with their earliest erotic feelings, most people remember being attracted to either the opposite sex or the same sex. [...] The fact that sexual orientation is usually quite stable doesn't rule out the possibility that for some people sexual behavior may change during the course of a lifetime.
- Eric Anderson; Mark McCormack (2016). "Measuring and Surveying Bisexuality". The Changing Dynamics of Bisexual Men's Lives. ISBN 978-3-319-29412-4. Retrieved 22 June 2019.
[R]esearch suggests that women's sexual orientation is slightly more likely to change than men's (Baumeister 2000; Kinnish et al. 2005). The notion that sexual orientation can change over time is known as sexual fluidity. Even if sexual fluidity exists for some women, it does not mean that the majority of women will change sexual orientations as they age – rather, sexuality is stable over time for the majority of people.
- Bailey, J. Michael; Vasey, Paul; Diamond, Lisa; Breedlove, S. Marc; Vilain, Eric; Epprecht, Marc (2016). "Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 17 (2): 45–101.
- ^ "Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation" (PDF). American Psychological Association. 2009. pp. 63, 86. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
- ^ "Just the Facts About Sexual Orientation & Youth: A Primer for Principals, Educators and School Personnel". American Psychological Association. 1999. Archived from the original on 3 February 2007. Retrieved 28 August 2007.
- ^ "ARQ2: Question A2 – Sexual Orientation". Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. Retrieved 28 August 2007.
- PMID 18194000.
- ^ "Bisexual women – new research findings". Women's Health News. 17 January 2008.
- .
- ^ Butler, Katy (7 March 2006). "Many Couples Must Negotiate Terms of 'Brokeback' Marriages". The New York Times.
- ISSN 0149-4929.
- PMID 8505530.
- ISBN 978-0-275-92541-3.
- ^ "APA Policy Statement on Sexual Orientation, Parents, & Children". 28 July 2004. Archived from the original on 15 July 2007. Retrieved 6 April 2007.
- PMID 3655343.
- S2CID 142502027.
- ^ "Europe: Gay Adoption Ruling Advances Family Equality". Human Rights Watch. 23 January 2008. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
- ^ "Gleichgeschlechtliche Adoptiveltern - Gerichtshof rügt Frankreich". euronews (in German). 22 January 2008. Archived from the original on 24 January 2012. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ "Adoption Laws: State by State". Human Rights Campaign. Archived from the original on 18 November 2008. Retrieved 9 July 2008.
- ^ Canadian Psychological Association (2 June 2005). "Brief presented to the Legislative House of Commons Committee on Bill C38" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 October 2012.
- ^ PMID 16818585.
- ISSN 1741-3737.
- PMID 16953748. Archived from the original(PDF) on 10 June 2010.
- ^ Cooper, L.; Cates, P. "Too high a price: The case against restricting gay parenting". New York: American Civil Liberties Union. p. 36., as cited in Short, Elizabeth; Riggs, Damien W.; Perlesz, Amaryll; Brown, Rhonda; Kane, Graeme (August 2007). "Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Parented Families: A Literature Review prepared for The Australian Psychological Society" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 26 December 2009.
- ^ "Children with Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Parents". American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 15 June 2010. Archived from the original on 15 June 2010.
- ^ "Adoption and Co-parenting of Children by Same-sex Couples". American Psychiatric Association. Archived from the original on 11 July 2008.
- ^ "Sexual Orientation, Parents, & Children". American Psychological Association.
- ^ "Position Statement on Gay and Lesbian Parenting". American Psychoanalytic Association. Archived from the original on 28 September 2011.
- ^ "Position Statement on Parenting of Children by Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Adults". Child Welfare League of America. Archived from the original on 13 June 2010.
- ^ "NACAC's Positions on Key Issues". The North American Council on Adoptable Children. 28 April 2017. Archived from the original on 19 October 2015. Retrieved 15 February 2010.
- ^ "Marriage of Same-Sex Couples – 2006 Position Statement" (PDF). Canadian Psychological Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 October 2012.
- ^ Affidavit of Michael Lamb in Gill v. Office of Personnel Management, 682 F.3d (1st Circ. 2012).
- ISBN 978-1-317-78689-4.
- PMID 3655341.
- PMID 7346553.
- PMID 2079706.
- ^ a b "Guidelines for Psychotherapy with Lesbian, Gay, & Bisexual Clients". American Psychological Association. Archived from the original on 8 February 2007.
- ^ British Psychological Society. "Guidelines and Literature Review for Psychologists Working Therapeutically with Sexual and Gender Minority Clients" (PDF). British Psychological Society.
- S2CID 145278059.
- ^ "Resolution on Appropriate Affirmative Responses to Sexual Orientation Distress and Change Efforts". American Psychological Association. Archived from the original on 11 August 2009.
- ^ Luo, Michael (12 February 2007). "Some Tormented by Homosexuality Look to a Controversial Therapy". The New York Times. p. 1. Retrieved 28 August 2007.
- ^ "Psychiatric Treatment and Sexual Orientation POSITION STATEMENT". American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved 12 October 2011.
- ISSN 0003-066X.
- ^ "Resolution on Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation". American Psychological Association. Retrieved 12 October 2011.
- ^ "Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Teens: Facts for Teens and Their Parents". Healthy Children. American Academy of Pediatrics. Archived from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
- OCLC 489184072.
External links
- American Academy of Pediatrics: "Sexual Orientation and Adolescents"
- British Psychological Society National Mental Health Association: "What Does Gay Mean? How to Talk with Kids about Sexual Orientation and Prejudice"
- Conversion therapy: Consensus statement
- Memorandum on Conversion Therapy in the UK